Optimizing reactions in fuel cells and electrochemical reactions

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to novel methods for affecting, controlling and/or directing various reactions and/or reaction pathways or systems by exposing one or more components in a fuel cell reaction system to at least one spectral energy pattern. In a first aspect of the invention, at least one spectral energy pattern can be applied to a fuel cell reaction system. In a second aspect of the invention, at least one spectral energy conditioning pattern can be applied to a conditioning reaction system. The spectral energy conditioning pattern can, for example, be applied at a separate location from the reaction vessel (e.g., in a conditioning reaction vessel) or can be applied in (or to) the reaction vessel, but prior to other reaction system participants being introduced into the reaction vessel.

BENEFIT CLAIM TO PRIOR APPLICATIONS

This Application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.60/394,518, filed Jul. 9, 2002.

This Application also is a Continuation-In-Part of InternationalApplication No. PCT/US03/08241 having an international filing date ofMar. 11, 2003.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to novel methods for affecting, controllingand/or directing various reactions and/or reaction pathways or systemsby exposing one or more components in a holoreaction system to at leastone spectral energy pattern. In a first aspect of the invention, atleast one spectral energy pattern can be applied to a reaction system.In a second aspect of the invention, at least one spectral energyconditioning pattern can be applied to a conditioning reaction system.The spectral energy conditioning pattern can, for example, be applied ata separate location from the reaction vessel (e.g., in a conditioningreaction vessel) or can be applied in (or to) the reaction vessel, butprior to other reaction system participants being introduced into thereaction vessel.

The techniques of the present invention are applicable to certainreactions in various cell reaction systems, including but not limitedto, the following known cells: galvanic cells, electrochemical cells,electrolytic cells, fuel cells, batteries, photoelectrochemical cells,photogalvanic cells, photoelectrolytic cells, capacitors. Cell reactionsystems can be organic, biologic and/or inorganic. The invention alsorelates to mimicking various mechanisms of action of various catalystsin cell reaction systems under various environmental reactionconditions. The invention specifically discloses different means forachieving the control of energy dynamics (e.g., matching ornon-matching) between, for example, applied energy and matter (e.g.,solids, liquids, gases, plasmas and/or combinations or portionsthereof), to achieve (or to prevent) and/or increase energy transfer to,for example, at least one participant (or at least one conditionableparticipant) in a holoreaction system by taking into account variousenergy considerations in the holoreaction system. The invention furtherdiscloses different techniques and different means for delivery of atleast one spectral energy pattern (or at least one spectral energyconditioning pattern) to at least a portion of a cell reaction system.The invention also discloses an approach for designing or determiningappropriate physical catalyst(s) and/or conditioned participants to beused in a cell reaction system.

DISCUSSION OF RELATED AND COMMONLY OWNED PATENT APPLICATIONS

The subject matter of the present invention is also related to thesubject matter contained in International Application No.PCT/US03/08236, entitled “Controlling Chemical Reactions by SpectralChemistry and Spectral Conditioning”, which was filed on Mar. 11, 2003.

Further the subject matter of the present invention is also related tothe subject matter contained in International Application No.PCT/US03/08904, entitled “Methods for Controlling Crystal Growth,Crystallization, Structures and Phases in Materials and Systems”, whichwas filed on Mar. 21, 2003.

Further the subject matter of the present invention is also related tothe subject matter contained in co-pending U.S. Provisional ApplicationSerial No. 60/477,117, entitled “Methods for Controlling Crystal Growth,Crystallization, Structures and Phases in Materials and Systems”, whichwas filed on Jun. 9, 2003.

The subject matter of each of the aforementioned patent applications isherein expressly incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Electrochemistry can be summarized as two simple and mirrored concepts:(1) the passage of an electrical current to cause chemicaltransformation of matter; and (2) the chemical transformation of matterto cause the passage of an electrical current.

Electrochemistry involves numerous oxidation and reduction reactions ator near anodes, cathodes and electrolytes in various electrochemical andelectrolytic cells. The specific reactions can occur by applying acurrent to various chemical reactants contained in a system to achieve adesired chemical species (e.g., electrolysis) or conversely, chemicalreactions can result in the production of electricity (e.g.,electrochemical reactions). In certain systems both electrolytic andelectrochemical reactions occur (e.g., rechargeable cells orrechargeable batteries). Oxidation reactions are those reactions whichlose electrons, whereas reduction reactions are those reactions whichgain electrons. Oxidation and reduction reactions occur in many chemicalsystems. For example, the rusting of metals, photosynthesis in theleaves of green plants, the conversion of foods to energy in the body,the generation of current from batteries and fuel cells, etc., are allexamples of chemical changes that involve the transfer of electrons fromone chemical species to another. When such reactions result in electronsflowing through a wire or when the flow of electrons causes a particularreduction reaction to occur, the processes are generally referred to aselectrochemical reactions. Whereas the study and/or application of theseelectrochemical reactions is often referred to as electrochemistry.

The applications of electrochemistry are widespread, as discussed above.Additionally, electrical measurements are used to monitor chemicalreactions in a wide variety of reactions, including those reactionsoccurring in an element as small as a living cell. Further, numerousimportant chemicals are manufactured by electrochemical means. Inaddition, electrochemistry is used to form a variety of important metals(e.g., aluminum and magnesium). Still further, electrochemistry is usedin corrosion protection, brine electrolysis, electrocrystallization,electroforming, electrolyte pickling, electrometallurgy, electroplating,electrorefining, electrowinning, galvanizing, photoelectrochemistry;photoelectrosynthesis and sonoelectrochemistry.

Many reactions that occur in the aforementioned systems appear toinvolve a shifting of electron density from one atom to another.Collectively, this shifting of electron density is referred to asoxidation/reduction reactions or more simply, redox reactions. The term“oxidation” refers to the loss of electrons by one reactant and the term“reduction” refers to the gain of electrons by another. Oxidation andreduction typically occur together. In particular, if one substance isoxidized, another substance is typically reduced. Otherwise, electronswould be a product of a reaction, and this has not been observed inthese reactions. During a redox reaction the substance that accepts theelectrons that another substance loses is known as an “oxidizing agent”,because it helps something else to be oxidized. Moreover, the substancethat supplies electrons is termed the “reducing agent” because it helpssomething else to be reduced.

There is known to the art a variety of different fuel cells whichfunction generally in a similar manner and which use variouselectrochemical reactions. In general, in each of the fuel cells, anelectrochemical reaction occurs at each of the anode and the cathodewhereby, typically, one or more atomic species and/or molecules maydonate electrons at the anode and become an ionic species. Donatedelectrons become involved in the flow of current from the anode to thecathode. The created ionic species is caused to flow through anelectrolyte and toward the cathode and typically reacts, through areduction half-reaction with another species at, or near the cathode.The names given to the different fuel cells are a function of thedifferent electrolytes used to conduct ions in the fuel cell. Inparticular, the following is a list of some of the better known fuelcells: proton exchange membrane fuel cells or polymer exchange membranefuel cells (“PEMFC”); phosphoric acid fuel cells (“PAFC”); moltencarbonate fuel cells (“MCFC”); solid oxide fuel cells (“SOFC”); alkalinefuel cells (“AFC”); direct methanol fuel cells; regenerative fuel cells;zinc-air fuel cells; and protonic-ceramic fuel cells. The names of thedifferent fuel cells relate directly to the electrolytes present betweenthe anode and the cathode.

A fuel cell, similar to a battery, is an electrochemical energyconversion device. Different fuel cells utilize different sources offuel, but one of the most common sources of fuel for fuel cells ishydrogen. Hydrogen is involved, directly or indirectly, in at least aportion of one reaction at the anode or the cathode in each of the fuelcells listed above. For example, in each of the PEMFC's and PAFC's,hydrogen, typically, in the form of a gas, is used as a fuel and reactsat an anode to become a hydrogen ion (or proton) by the use of aplatinum catalyst on, in and/or near the anode, which anode is incontact with a polymer electrolyte membrane. In particular, the reactionat the anode is known as a half-reaction (i.e., there are two generalsets of overall reactions in a fuel cell, namely, those reactionsoccurring at or near the anode; and those reactions occurring at or nearthe cathode). The half-reaction at the anode in each of PEMFC's andPAFC's is as follows:2H₂→4H⁺+4e⁻.Accordingly, the half-reaction at the anode in the hydrogen fueled fuelcells results in the production of hydrogen ions and electrons. Theproduced hydrogen ions or protons are caused to migrate through anelectrolyte (e.g., a polymer membrane in PEMFC's and liquid phosphoricacid in PAFC's), and are directed toward the cathode side of the fuelcell.

At or near the cathode, a typical reaction occurring in ahydrogen-fueled fuel cell (e.g., a PEMFC or a PAFC) involves thehydrogen ions being combined with oxygen (e.g., oxygen supplied from theair or pure oxygen) as well as free electrons that have been caused toflow from the anode to the cathode. In particular, the half-reactionoccurring at the cathode in PEMFC's and PAFC's is known as a reductionreaction and occurs generally as follows:O₂+4H⁺+4e⁻→2H₂O.

Accordingly, the overall fuel cell reaction (i.e., that reaction whichdefines the starting components and finishing components), is asfollows:2H₂+O₂→2H₂O.

The actual half-reactions that occur at each of the anode and cathodeare more complex than those listed above (e.g., various intermediatesare also involved) however, the equations are representative of theoverall reactions. The total potential or voltage created in a fuel cellis the sum of the voltages created by each of the half-reactions, inparticular, the oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces a certainvoltage potential and the reduction half-reaction at the cathodeproduces another voltage potential. These two voltage potentials can besummed to obtain the total voltage of the fuel cell. For example, in atypical PEM fuel cell utilizing hydrogen as a fuel, the voltage from asingle cell is about 0.7 Volts. In order to obtain higher voltages,stacks of fuel cells are created and such fuel cells are typically wiredin series to create the stack. Accordingly, such stacks can result insignificant voltages and currents.

The various electrochemical reactions that occur at each of the anodeand the cathode may need to be catalyzed by a physical catalyst. Acatalyst that has found a wide abundance of usage is a platinumcatalyst. The reason that catalysts are utilized in some fuel cells,typically, is to obtain reaction rates that are acceptable at somewhatlower temperatures (e.g., room temperature to a few hundred degreesCelsius). In other words, in the absence of a catalyst, one or more ofthe half-reactions occurring at the anode and/or cathode are, typically,too slow to result in the production of enough electrons to achieve anymeaningful results. While many reactions increase with increasingtemperature, high operating temperatures are not possible to achieve inmany of the fuel cells due to the materials that are utilized (e.g.,water, low temperature polymers, etc.).

For those fuel cells that require physical catalysts, the prior art isreplete with attempts to make more efficient use of the somewhatexpensive catalysts, such as platinum, by, for example, reducing theamount of platinum required, while still maintaining acceptable reactionrates. Further, the prior art admits that a large amount of knowledgeneeds to be gained in understanding how to utilize existing catalystsbetter, as well as discovering new catalysts that may be better suitedfor optimizing various electrochemical reactions. In particular, theprior are does not understand the variety of complexities associatedwith the membrane/electrode assembly or MEA. Optimization ofmembrane/electrode assemblies, especially when catalysts are included,is a major goal of the prior art.

The prior art further discloses various electrolyte materials for use invarious MEA assemblies that are utilized for the transport of ionsthrough the various electrolytes. The prior art continues to search fornew materials and/or methods which can enhance the operation of variouselectrolyte materials, as well as interactions between electrolytematerials and electrodes and/or catalysts, and thus improve theperformance of the various fuel cells.

Still further, the electrodes used in fuel cells have also been a largefocus in the prior art. In particular, electrodes are quite porous so asto result in a large amount of surface area in the electrodes so that,for example: (1) catalyzed reactions can occur in a much greater surfacearea and thus, can occur at rates that are acceptable for electron flow(i.e., rendering fuel cells commercially feasible due to acceptableamounts of current between the anode and the cathode); and (2) so thatreactants and/or reaction products can readily flow therethrough (i.e.,so that such reactants and/or reaction products can communicate with theelectrolyte). In some cases, such electrodes exist as independent solidmembers, whereas in other cases electrodes may be physically placed onat least a portion of an electrolyte (e.g., electrodes may be screenprinted on or painted on certain electrolyte materials).

In addition to the electrodes (i.e., the anode and the cathode), and theelectrolyte which is positioned therebetween, fuel cells require sometype of mechanism for permitting, for example, gaseous fuel to be flowedto the anode, as well as gaseous air or oxygen flowing, typically, tothe cathode. Thus, for example, in PEMFC's, various passageways or flowfields or flow channels are created which permit the flow of, forexample, gases to the electrodes. Numerous such structures exist in theprior art in combination with various backing plates, control valves andpressure regulators, all of which are all well known, but arecontinually being modified in an attempt to achieve more acceptableperformance in the various fuel cell systems.

In every fuel cell system, there are a variety of chemical reactionsthat need to occur in order to produce ion flow and electron flow. Manyof these reactions are admittedly not well understood, but are thoughtto be essential to the desirable functioning of a fuel cell. However,many of these reactions do not occur at a fast enough rate to renderfuel cells commercially desirable for numerous applications. Moreover,many half-reactions may occur, for example, at an anode at an acceptablerate, but other half-reactions at a cathode may slow down the overalloutput of a fuel cell. Accordingly, in some fuel cell systems, anincrease in reaction rate at either the anode or the cathode could havesignificant positive performance results for the fuel cell.

As discussed above, much focus in the prior art has been placed onminimizing the amount of, for example, catalysts needed in a fuel cellbecause, for example, many such catalysts are relatively expensive,difficult to obtain, difficult to manufacture, etc. These, as well, asvarious other limitations, have prevented fuel cells from becomingwidely accepted and utilized. However, the potential for successfulutilization of fuel cells remains great.

In addition to the various reactions that occur within the fuel cellreaction system per se (i.e., as defined herein), the prior art hasutilized various different techniques or technologies for deliveringvarious fuels to the fuel cell. In particular, hydrogen has received anenormous amount of attention as a desirable fuel source for fuel cells.Known sources of hydrogen include, for example, hydrogen gases,precursors to hydrogen such as gasoline, diesel fuel, methanol, etc., aswell as various solids such as one or more known metal hydrides. From achemistry standpoint, the utilization of pure hydrogen provides the mostsimple form of fuel for fuel cells. However, gaseous hydrogen sourceshave the limitation that highly pressurized hydrogen needs to beavailable and in many cases portable, which could result in certaindifficulties. For example, if fuel cells are to achieve desirableacceptance in automobiles, then some type of nationwide dispensingmechanism for hydrogen will most likely be required.

With regard to liquid precursors to hydrogen, such as those mentionedabove, the hydrogen needs to go through some type of a catalyzedreformation process so that hydrogen can be released from the variousliquids. This process has certain advantages in that infrastructuresexist around most of the world for dispensing liquids such as gasoline,diesel fuel, methanol, etc, but the use of such liquids has drawbacks inthat additional reactions need to occur to form an acceptably pure fuelfor inputting into fuel cells. In these cases, additional equipmentneeds to be provided for the reformation reactions. In the case ofmoving vehicles, the extra equipment means extra, and usuallyundesirable, weight. Further, various undesirable by-products (e.g.,carbon monoxide) may also form during the reformation reaction and suchundesirable by-products may adversely interfere with certainelectrochemical reactions including the reactions involving physicalcatalysts which have been added to the fuel cell reaction system (e.g.,CO can block the activity of platinum catalyst sites thus reducing theefficiency of oxidation and/or reduction reactions in a fuel system).Accordingly, the prior art would benefit from a process which couldreactivate those catalyst sites that become at least partially blockedduring the functioning of the fuel cell.

The prior art has also focussed some attention on providing hydrogen insolid form by, for example, causing hydrogen to be absorbed into variousmetals. In particular, various metal hydrides have been formulated bythe prior art, but have yet to be optimized. In this regard, muchmystery still surrounds acceptable metals or metal alloys and theability of the metal and/or metal alloys to accept hydrogen into theirstructure. Certain such metals such as palladium have achievedparticular attention, but metal alloys such as titanium, nickel,vanadium, zirconium, chromium, cobalt and iron, etc., have also comeinto favor (e.g., LiN₁₅ is capable of storing six hydrogen atoms perunit cell to form LiN₁₅H₆). The desirability of storing hydrogen in asolid form is that much more hydrogen can, in theory, be made availableas fuel for the fuel cell in a similar amount of space relative togaseous sources of hydrogen. However, the additional weight of the metalneeds to be taken account and, thus, the storage of hydrogen needs to beefficiently achieved in order for solid storage of hydrogen to befeasible in, for example, mobile fuel cell applications.

Accordingly, it is clear from all the above, that a variety ofelectrochemical reactions are important in every fuel cell reactionsystem in order to achieve a desirably functioning fuel cell. Focus uponthese various electrochemical reactions, as well as all of the chemicalspecies and/or physical species involved in the reactions, is important.

The various reactions that occur in the aforementioned electrochemicalsystems are driven by energy. The energy comes primarily in twodifferent forms: chemical and electrical. There are many other forms ofenergy that drive chemical transformation, however, including thermal,mechanical, acoustic, and electromagnetic. Various features of each typeof energy are thought to contribute in different ways to the driving ofchemical reactions. Irrespective of the type of energy involved,chemical reactions and transformations are undeniably and inextricablyintertwined with the transfer and combination of energy. Anunderstanding of energy is, therefore, vital to an understanding ofchemical reactions, including electrochemical reactions.

A chemical reaction can be controlled and/or directed either by theaddition of energy to the reaction medium in the form of thermal,mechanical, acoustic, electrical, magnetic, and/or electromagneticenergy or by means of transferring energy through a physical catalyst.These methods are traditionally not that energy efficient and canproduce, for example, either unwanted by-products, decomposition ofrequired transients, and/or intermediates and/or activated complexesand/or insufficient quantities of preferred products of a reaction.

It has been generally believed that chemical reactions occur as a resultof collisions between reacting molecules. In terms of the collisiontheory of chemical kinetics, it has been expected that the rate of areaction is directly proportional to the number of the molecularcollisions per second:rate α number of collisions/secThis simple relationship has been used to explain the dependence ofreaction rates on concentration. Additionally, with few exceptions,reaction rates have been believed to increase with increasingtemperature because of increased collisions.

The dependence of the rate constant k of a reaction can be expressed bythe following equation, known as the Arrhenius equation:k=Ae^(−Ea/RT)where E_(α) is the activation energy of the reaction which is theminimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction, R isthe gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and e is the base of thenatural logarithm scale. The quantity A represents the collision rateand shows that the rate constant is directly proportional to A and,therefore, to the collision rate. Furthermore, because of the minus signassociated with the exponent E_(α)/RT, the rate constant decreases withincreasing activation energy and increases with increasing temperature.

Normally, only a small fraction of the colliding molecules, typicallythe fastest-moving ones, have enough kinetic energy to exceed theactivation energy, therefore, the increase in the rate constant k hasbeen explained with the temperature increase. Since more high-energymolecules are present at a higher temperature, the rate of productformation is also greater at the higher temperature. But, with increasedtemperatures there are a number of problems which can be introduced intothe cell reaction system. With thermal excitation other competingprocesses, such as bond rupture, may occur before the desired energystate can be reached. Also, there are a number of decomposition productswhich often produce fragments that are extremely reactive, but they canbe so short-lived because of their thermodynamic instability, that apreferred reaction may be dampened.

In electrochemical reactions, it is generally believed that chemicaltransformations occur as the result of the passage of an electricalcurrent, or conversely that a chemical reaction produces an electricalcurrent. In this regard, electrochemistry involves the science ofionically conducting solutions, as well as the science of electricallycharged interfaces. There are four important aspects of ionicallyconducting solutions: (1) ion interactions with the solvent; (2) ioninteractions with other ions (either of the same or different species);(3) movement of ions in solutions; and (4) ionic liquids or “pureelectrolytes”

Electrodics, the same science of electrically charged interfaces,involves the transfer of charge across solid-solution interfaces andinterfacial regions. Electrodics thus involves the transfer ofelectrical charge between two phases of matter. These phases can existon surfaces of materials not customarily thought of as solid-solutioninterfaces. Corrosion is a good example of this, wherein a material iscovered by a thick invisible film of moisture. Atoms on the surface ofthe material leave the material and dissolve into the ion-containingfilm of moisture. Thus, in electrochemistry, the familiar kineticcatalysts of chemical reactions by molecules and atoms colliding witheach other is replaced by species colliding with electrodes. In thisregard, the electrodes can be thought of as separate “charge-transfercatalysts”.

Radiant or light energy is another form of energy that may be added tothe reaction medium that also may have negative side effects but whichmay be different from (or the same as) those side effects from thermalenergy. Addition of radiant energy to a system produces electronicallyexcited molecules that are capable of undergoing chemical reactions.

A molecule in which all the electrons are in stable orbitals is said tobe in the ground electronic state. These orbitals may be either bondingor non-bonding. If a photon of the proper energy collides with themolecule the photon may be absorbed and one of the electrons may bepromoted to an unoccupied orbital of higher energy. Electronicexcitation results in spatial redistribution of the valence electronswith concomitant changes in internuclear configurations. Since chemicalreactions are controlled to a great extent by these factors, anelectronically excited molecule undergoes a chemical reaction that maybe distinctly different from those of its ground-state counterpart.

The energy of a photon is defined in terms of its frequency orwavelength,E=hv=hc/λwhere E is energy; h is Plank's constant, 6.6×10⁻³⁴ J sec; v is thefrequency of the radiation, sec⁻¹; c is the speed of light; and λ is thewavelength of the radiation. When a photon is absorbed, all of itsenergy is typically imparted to the absorbing species. The primary actfollowing absorption depends on the wavelength of the incident light.Photochemistry studies photons whose energies lie in the ultravioletregion (e.g., 100 Å-4000 Å) and in the visible region (e.g., 4000 Å-7000Å) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such photons are primarily a causeof electronically excited molecules.

Since the molecules are imbued with electronic energy upon absorption oflight, reactions occur from different potential-energy surfaces fromthose encountered in thermally excited systems. However, there areseveral drawbacks of using the known techniques of photochemistry, thatbeing, utilizing a broad band of frequencies thereby causing unwantedside reactions, undue experimentation, and poor quantum yield. Some goodexamples of photochemistry are shown in the following patents.

In particular, U.S. Pat. No. 5,174,877 issued to Cooper, et al. al.,(1992) discloses an apparatus for the photocatalytic treatment ofliquids. In particular, it is disclosed that ultraviolet lightirradiates the surface of a prepared slurry to activate thephotocatalytic properties of the particles contained in the slurry. Thetransparency of the slurry affects, for example, absorption ofradiation. Moreover, discussions of different frequencies suitable forachieving desirable photocatalytic activity are disclosed.

Further, U.S. Pat. No. 4,755,269 issued to Brumer, et al. al., (1998)discloses a photodisassociation process for disassociating variousmolecules in a known energy level. In particular, it is disclosed thatdifferent disassociation pathways are possible and the differentpathways can be followed due to selecting different frequencies ofcertain electromagnetic radiation. It is further disclosed that theamplitude of electromagnetic radiation applied corresponds to amounts ofproduct produced.

Selective excitation of different species is shown in the followingthree (3) patents. Specifically, U.S. Pat. No. 4,012,301 to Rich, et al.al., (1977) discloses vapor phase chemical reactions that areselectively excited by using vibrational modes corresponding to thecontinuously flowing reactant species. Particularly, a continuous wavelaser emits radiation that is absorbed by the vibrational mode of thereactant species.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,215,634 issued to Wan, et al., (1993) discloses aprocess of selectively converting methane to a desired oxygenate. Inparticular, methane is irradiated in the presence of a catalyst withpulsed microwave radiation to convert reactants to desirable products.The physical catalyst disclosed comprises nickel and the microwaveradiation is applied in the range of about 1.5 to 3.0 GHz.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,015,349 issued to Suib, et al. al., (1991) discloses amethod for cracking a hydrocarbon to create cracked reaction products.It is disclosed that a stream of hydrocarbon is exposed to a microwaveenergy which creates a low power density microwave discharge plasma,wherein the microwave energy is adjusted to achieve desired results. Aparticular frequency desired of microwave energy is disclosed as being2.45 GHz.

Photoelectrochemistry has focussed on three main areas. In the first,light is shone on a metal electrode, but metals absorb broadband lightvery poorly and so this method is not greatly effective. The second areaof photoelectric chemistry involves the passage of electrons in asolution by absorption of light by photoactive species resulting inelectron generation. Again, these techniques use broadband methods andhave drawbacks. The third area of photoelectricalchemistry considered bymany to be the most promising involves the absorption of light bysemiconductors in cell reaction systems, elevating electrons fromvalence bands to conduction bands. The semiconductors in electrodesfunction as photo-induced charge transfer catalysts.

Physical catalysts are well known in the art. Specifically, a physicalcatalyst is a substance which alters the reaction rate of a chemicalreaction without appearing in the end product. It is known that somereactions can be speeded up or controlled by the presence of substanceswhich themselves appear to remain unchanged after the reaction hasended. By increasing the velocity of a desired reaction relative tounwanted reactions, the formation of a desired product can be maximizedcompared with unwanted by-products. Often only a trace of physicalcatalyst is necessary to accelerate the reaction. Also, it has beenobserved that some substances, which if added in trace amounts, can slowdown the rate of a reaction. This looks like the reverse of catalysis,and, in fact, substances which slow down a reaction rate have beencalled negative catalysts or poisons. Known physical catalysts gothrough a cycle in which they are used and regenerated so that they canbe used again and again. A physical catalyst operates by providinganother path for the reaction which can have a higher reaction rate orslower rate than available in the absence of the physical catalyst. Atthe end of the reaction, because the physical catalyst can be recovered,it appears the physical catalyst is not involved in the reaction. But,the physical catalyst must somehow take part in the reaction, or elsethe rate of the reaction would not change. The catalytic act hashistorically been represented by five essential steps originallypostulated by Ostwald around the late 1800's:

1. Diffusion to the catalytic site (reactant);

2. Bond formation at the catalytic site (reactant);

3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;

-   -   4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and

5. Diffusion away from the catalytic site (product).

The exact mechanisms of catalytic actions are unknown in the art but itis known that physical catalysts can speed up a reaction that otherwisewould take place too slowly to be practical.

There are a number of problems involved with known industrial catalysts:firstly, physical catalysts can not only lose their efficiency but alsotheir selectivity, which can occur due to, for example, overheating orcontamination of the catalyst; secondly, many physical catalysts includecostly metals such as platinum or silver and have only a limited lifespan, some are difficult to rejuvenate, and the precious metals may notbe easily reclaimed. There are numerous physical limitations associatedwith physical catalysts which render them less than ideal participantsin many reactions.

Accordingly, what is needed is an understanding of the catalytic processso that biological processing, chemical processing, industrialprocessing, etc., can be engineered by more precisely controlling themultitude of reaction processes that currently exist, as well asdeveloping completely new reaction pathways and/or reaction products.Examples of such understandings include methods to catalyze reactionswithout the drawbacks of: (1) known physical catalysts; and (2)utilizing energy with much greater specificity than the prior artteachings which utilize less than ideal thermal and electromagneticradiation methods and which result in numerous inefficiencies.

Accordingly, what is also needed are techniques for electrochemistrywhich improve the functioning of electrodes as charge-transfercatalysts. Further, improvements are required in the transport of ionsand charges through electrolyte solutions. Passage of electrons throughmetals and semiconductors is not rate-limiting, rather it is the passageof ions and charged species through solutions that is slow.

Definitions

For the purposes of this invention, the terms and expressions below,appearing in the Specification and Claims, are intended to have thefollowing meanings:

“Activated complex”, as used herein, means the assembly of atom(s)(charged or neutral) which corresponds to the maximum in the reactionprofile describing the transformation of reactant(s) into reactionproduct(s). Either the reactant or reaction product in this definitioncould be an intermediate in an overall transformation involving morethan one step.

“Alkaline battery” or “alkaline cell”, as used herein, means a cellwhich utilizes an aqueous solution of alkaline potassium hydroxide asthe electrolyte. One electrode comprises zinc and the other electrodecomprises manganese dioxide. In batteries, the zinc is typically presentas a high surface area powder and the electrolyte is typically gelled.The typical half-reactions are:Zn+2OH⁻=Zn(OH)₂+2e ⁻; and2MnO₂+H₂O+2e ⁻=Mn₃O₂+2OH⁻.

“Alkaline fuel cell”, as used herein, means a fuel cell which utilizesan aqueous solution of alkaline potassium hydroxide soaked in a matrixas the electrolyte. Operating temperatures are about 150-200° C.

“Anode”, as used herein, means the electrode where oxidation occurs inan electrochemical cell. It is the positive electrode in an electrolyticcell, while it is the negative electrode in a galvanic cell.

“Anode effect”, as used herein, means a particular condition in anelectrolytic cell that produces a quick increase in cell voltage and acorresponding decrease in current flow. This effect is usually caused bythe temporary formation of an insulating layer on the anode surface. Itoccurs almost exclusively in molten salt electrolysis (e.g., aluminumproduction).

“Anodic protection” or “corrosion protection”, as used herein, means aprocess for corrosion protection of a metal or an alloy achieved bycausing an anodic current of appropriate magnitude to form a passivefilm on the material used as the anode in an electrolytic cell. Anodicprotection is utilized for metals such as stainless steel and titanium.

“Anodizing”, as used herein means, the process of producing an oxidefilm or coating on metals or alloys by the process of electrolysis. Themetal which is coated functions as an anode in an electrolytic cell andthe surface of the anode (i.e., metal) is electrochemically oxidized.Anodization improves certain properties including, for example,corrosion resistance, abrasion resistance, and hardness.

“Applied spectral energy conditioning pattern”, as used herein, meansthe totality of: (a) all spectral energy conditioning patterns that areexternally applied to a conditionable participant; and/or (b) spectralconditioning environmental reaction conditions that are used tocondition one or more conditionable participants to form a conditionedparticipant in a conditioning reaction system.

“Applied spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means the totalityof: (a) all spectral energy patterns that are externally applied; and/or(b) spectral environmental reaction conditions input into a cellreaction system.

“Backing layers”, as used herein, means a portion of some fuel cellswhich is/are located adjacent to each electrode that provide for partialsupport of such electrode(s) and for diffusion (e.g., interconnectedporosity may be provided) of, for example, reactants toward an electrodeand/or reaction products away from an electrode.

“Battery”, as used herein, means a device which stores an electricalenergy using electrochemical cells. Chemical reactions occurspontaneously at the electrodes when the electrodes are connected by anexternal circuit producing an electric current. Batteries are typicallycomprised of several, internally connected, electrochemical cells (i.e.,batteries often contain several cells). However, the term “battery” and“cell” are often interchangeably used.

“Bioelectrochemistry”, as used herein, means the electrochemicalreactions that occur in biological systems and/or biological compounds.

“Bi-polar electrode”, as used herein, means an electrode that is sharedby two-series coupled electrochemical cells such that one side of theelectrode acts as an anode in a first cell and the other side of theelectrode acts as a cathode in an adjacent cell. These electrodes areoften used in storage batteries and fuel cell stacks that connect manycells internally.

“Brine electrolysis”, as used herein, means electrolysis of an aqueoussolution of sodium chloride, also known as “brine”, which results in theproduction of chlorine gas at the anode and hydrogen gas at the cathode.The overall cell reaction is:2NaCl+2H₂O=Cl₂+H₂+2NaOH.

“Capacitance”, as used herein, means the ability of a capacitor to storeelectrical charge. The unit of capacitance is the Farad.

“Capacitive current” or “current density”, as used herein, means thecurrent, or current density flowing through an electrochemical cell thatis charging/discharging an electrical double-layer capacitance. Thiscurrent does not involve chemical reactions, rather, the current resultsin accumulation (or removal) of electrical charges on the electrode andin the electrolyte solution near the electrode.

“Capacitor” or “capacitor cells”, as used herein, means an electricaldevice which stores electricity or electrical energy. It includes threeessential parts, two electrodes, (e.g., metal plates) which arephysically separated from each other and are, typically, substantiallyparallel to each; and located therebetween is a third part known as adielectric. The electrodes are charged with a substantially equal amountof positive and negative electrical charges, respectively. Capacitorsresult in a physical storage of electricity rather than a chemicalstorage of electricity.

“Catalytic spectral conditioning pattern”, as here herein, means atleast a portion of a spectral conditioning pattern of a physicalcatalyst which when applied to a conditionable participant can conditionthe conditionable participant to catalyze and/or assist in catalyzingthe cell reaction system by the following:

completely replacing a physical chemical catalyst;

acting in unison with a physical chemical catalyst to increase the rateof reaction;

reducing the rate of reaction by acting as a negative catalyst; or

altering the reaction pathway for formation of a specific reactionproduct.

“Catalytic spectral energy conditioning pattern”, as used herein, meansat least a portion of a spectral energy conditioning pattern which whenapplied to a conditionable participant in the form of a beam or fieldcan condition the conditionable participant to form a conditionedparticipant having a spectral energy pattern corresponding to at least aportion of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst which catalyzesand/or assists in catalyzing the cell reaction system when theconditioned participant is placed into, or becomes involved with, thecell reaction system.

“Catalytic spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means at least aportion of a spectral energy pattern of a physical catalyst which whenapplied to a cell reaction system in the form of a beam or field cancatalyze a particular reaction in the cell reaction system.

“Catalytic spectral pattern”, as used herein, means at least a portionof a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst which when applied to acell reaction system can catalyze a particular reaction by thefollowing:

a) completely replacing a physical chemical catalyst;

b) acting in unison with a physical chemical catalyst to increase therate of reaction;

c) reducing the rate of reaction by acting as a negative catalyst; or

d) altering the reaction pathway for formation of a specific reactionproduct.

“Cell”, as used herein, means a fundamental unit comprising at least twomaterial(s) functioning as electrodes and at least one substance ormaterial (e.g., at least a portion of which is an electrolyte or adielectric) located between the electrodes. These fundamental units canbe organic, biologic and/or inorganic.

“Cell reaction system”, as used herein, means all the constituents in acell (e.g., galvanic cell, battery, fuel cell, electrochemical cell,electrolytic cell, photoelectrochemical cell, photogalvanic cell,photoelectrolytic cell, capacitor, electrochemical processes, etc.),including, but not limited to, reactants, intermediates, transients,activated complexes, physical catalysts, poisons, promoters, solvents,physical catalyst support materials, spectral catalysts, spectral energycatalysts, reaction products, environmental reaction conditions,spectral environmental reaction conditions, applied spectral energypattern, reaction vessels, containers, electrolytes, electrodes, backinglayers, flow fields, housings, etc., that are involved in any reactionpathway.

“Concentration”, as used herein, means a measure of the amount of adissolved material (i.e., solute) in a solution.

“Concentration cell”, as used herein, means a galvanic cell in which thechemical energy converted into electrical energy comes from aconcentration difference of a species at the two electrodes in the cell.

“Condition” or “conditioning”, as used herein, means the application orexposure of a conditioning energy or combination of conditioningenergies to at least one conditionable participant prior to theconditionable participant becoming involved (e.g., being placed into acell reaction system and/or prior to being activated) in the cellreaction system.

“Conditionable participant”, as used herein, means reactant, physicalcatalyst, solvent, physical catalyst support material, reaction vessel,conditioning reaction vessel, promoter and/or poison comprised ofmolecules, macromolecules, ions and/or atoms (or components thereof) inany form of matter (e.g., solid, liquid, gas, plasma) that can beconditioned by an applied spectral energy conditioning pattern.

“Conditioned participant”, as used herein, means reactant, physicalcatalyst, solvent, physical catalyst support material, reaction vessel,conditioning reaction vessel, physical promoter and/or poison comprisedof molecules, ions and/or atoms (or components thereof) in any form ofmatter (e.g., solid, liquid, gas, plasma) that has been conditioned byan applied spectral energy conditioning pattern.

“Conditioning energy”, as used herein means at least one of thefollowing spectral energy conditioning providers: spectral energyconditioning catalyst; spectral conditioning catalyst; spectral energyconditioning pattern; spectral conditioning pattern; catalytic spectralenergy conditioning pattern; catalytic spectral conditioning pattern;applied spectral energy conditioning pattern and spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions.

“Conditioning environmental reaction condition”, as used herein, meansand includes traditional reaction variables such as temperature,pressure, surface area of catalysts, physical catalyst size and shape,concentrations, electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magneticfields, mechanical forces, acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shapeand composition and combinations thereof, etc., which may be present andare capable of influencing, positively or negatively, the conditioningof at least one conditionable participant.

“Conditioning reaction system”, as used herein, means the combination ofreactants, physical catalysts, poisons, promoters, solvents, physicalcatalyst support materials, conditioning reaction vessel, reactionvessel, spectral conditioning catalysts, spectral energy conditioningcatalysts, conditioned participants, environmental conditioning reactionconditions, spectral environmental conditioning reaction conditions,applied spectral energy conditioning pattern, etc., that are involved inany reaction pathway to form a conditioned participant.

“Conditioning reaction vessel”, as used herein, means the physicalvessel(s) or containment system(s) which contains or houses allcomponents of the conditioning reaction system, including any physicalstructure or media which are contained within the vessel or system.

“Conditioning targeting”, as used herein, means the application ofconditioning energy to a conditionable participant to condition theconditionable participant prior to the conditionable participant beinginvolved, and/or activated, in a holoreaction system, said conditioningenergy being provided by at least one of the following spectral energyconditioning providers: spectral energy conditioning catalyst; spectralconditioning catalyst; spectral energy conditioning pattern; spectralconditioning pattern; catalytic spectral energy conditioning pattern;catalytic spectral conditioning pattern; applied spectral energyconditioning pattern; and spectral environmental conditioning reactionconditions, to achieve (1) direct resonance; and/or (2) harmonicresonance; and/or (3) non-harmonic heterodyne-resonance with at least aportion of at least one of the following conditionable participants:reactants; physical catalysts; promoters; poisons; solvents; physicalcatalyst support materials; reaction vessels; conditioning reactionvessels; conditioning reaction vessels and/or mixtures or componentsthereof (in any form of matter), said spectral energy conditioningprovider providing conditioning energy to condition at least oneconditionable participant by interacting with at least one frequencythereof, to form at least one conditioned participant which assists inproducing at least one desired reaction product and/or at least onedesired reaction product at a desired reaction rate, when theconditioned participant becomes involved with, and/or activated in, acell reaction system.

“Corrosion”, as used herein, means chemical processes, as well aselectrochemical processes, that destroy structural materials. Typically,it refers to corrosions of metals, but other materials (e.g., plasticsor semiconductors) also exhibit corrosion. Metallic corrosion is mostalways an electrochemical process when the metal is immersed in asolution. However, certain atmospheric conditions which result in, forexample, thin-films of moisture often result in similar electrochemicalprocesses occurring on at least a portion of a metal. Metal in thecorrosive solution functions as a short-circuited galvanic cell. Inparticular, a first portion of a surface of the metal acts as an anodeand another portion acts as a cathode. Oxidation occurs at the anodicareas, whereas at the cathodic areas dissolved oxygen is reduced.Accordingly, the spontaneous complimentary redox reaction of rustingcauses electrical current to be flowing into/from two different parts ina metal.

“Current”, as used herein, means the movement of electrical charges in aconductor (e.g., electrons moving in an electronic conductor and ionsmoving in an ionic conductor). Electrochemistry uses almost exclusivelydirect current. Accordingly, unless mentioned in context of thedisclosure herein, the use of the term “current” is typically inconnection with direct currents. The typical unit of a current is anampere.

“Current collector”, as used herein, means a plate or device which canconduct electrons produced by, for example, an oxidation reaction at ananode. These devices are typically plates that also may incorporate aflow field and are thus made from materials that are typicallyrelatively impervious to reactants and/or reaction products under theprocess conditions of the cell reaction system.

“Cycle life”, as used herein, means the number of times a rechargeablebattery can be cycled (i.e., charged and discharged) before the batteryor cell loses its ability to accept charge.

“Dielectric”, as used herein, means a material present betweenelectrodes in a capacitor.

“Dielectric constant”, as used herein, means the relative permittivityof a material compared to the permittivity of a vacuum. Differentmaterials have different dielectric constants which are determined bythe following equation:E_(actual)=E_(r)E_(o),where E_(actual) is the actual permittivity; E_(r) is the dielectricconstant and E_(o) is the permittivity of a vacuum.

“Diffusion layer”, as used herein, means a thin-liquid boundary layer atthe surface of an electrode that is immobile. This immobile layer ispart of a model which is often referred to as the “NernstianHypothesis”. In this approach, the electrolyte solution is divided intothree distinct parts, the bulk solution and two diffusion layers locatedat or near the surfaces of the electrodes. The bulk solution is assumedto be homogenous. Thus, mass transport occurs primarily throughconvection. However, in the diffusion layers, mass transport occursprimarily through diffusion. Charge transport occurs by an electricmigration approach everywhere within a cell. However, the thickness ofthe diffusion layer typically varies between about 0.01 cm to about0.0001 cm. Diffusion layers can affect the functioning of cells.

“Direct methanol fuel cell”, as used herein, means a fuel cell whichutilizes a polymer membrane as the electrolyte and an anode catalystwhich itself manufacturers hydrogen as fuel, said hydrogen fuel beingproduced for the fuel cell from a liquid methanol precursor (e.g., thuseliminating the need for a fuel reformer). These fuel cells typicallyoperate at temperatures between 50-100° C.

“Direct resonance conditioning targeting”, as used herein, means theapplication of conditioning energy to a conditionable participant tocondition the conditionable participant prior to the conditionableparticipant being involved, and/or activated, in a cell reaction system,said conditioning energy being provided by at least one of the followingspectral energy conditioning providers: spectral energy conditioningcatalyst; spectral conditioning catalyst; spectral energy conditioningpattern; spectral conditioning pattern; catalytic spectral energyconditioning pattern; catalytic spectral conditioning pattern; appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern and spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonance with atleast a portion of at least one conditionable participant (e.g.;reactants; physical catalysts; promoters; poisons; solvents; physicalcatalyst support materials; reaction vessels; conditioning reactionvessels and/or mixtures or components thereof in any form of matter),said spectral energy conditioning providers providing conditioningenergy to condition at least one conditionable participant(s) byinteracting with at least one frequency thereof to form at least oneconditioned participant, which assists in producing at least one desiredreaction product and/or at least one desired reaction product at adesired reaction rate, when the conditioned participant becomes involvedwith, and/or activated in, a cell reaction system.

“Direct resonance targeting”, as used herein, means the application ofenergy to a cell reaction system by at least one of the followingspectral energy providers: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst;spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energypattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern andspectral environmental reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonancewith at least one of the following forms of matter: reactants;transients; intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts;reaction products; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalystsupport materials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or componentsthereof, said spectral energy providers providing energy to at least oneof said forms of matter by interacting with at least one frequencythereof, to produce at least one desired reaction product and/or atleast one desired reaction product at a desired reaction rate.

“Dry cell”, as used herein, means a non-rechargeable battery wherein theelectrolyte is immobilized by a gelling agent. The whole cell istypically sealed.

“Electrical double layer”, as used herein, means the structure of chargeaccumulation and charge separation that occurs at the interface betweenan electrode and an electrolyte when an electrode is, for example,immersed in an electrolyte solution.

“Electrical potential”, as used herein, means the difference inpotential between two points in a circuit.

“Electrical power”, as used herein, means the rate at which anelectrical source can supply electrical energy. Electrical power isoften expressed in the units of watts. Watts relate to the rate at whichenergy can be delivered.

“Electroacoustics or “electroacoustic effect”, as used herein, meanselectrokinetic effects arising when sound waves cause certainoscillations of one or more parts in a cell.

“Electroanalytical chemistry”, as used herein, means the application ofelectrochemical cells and electrochemical techniques for electrochemicalanalysis. The material to be analyzed is dissolved in the electrolyte ofa cell.

“Electrochemical cell”, as used herein, means a device that convertschemical energy into electrical energy. It includes two electrodes whichare separated by an electrolyte. The electrodes may comprise anyelectrically conducting material (e.g., solid or liquid metals,semiconductors, etc.) which can communicate with each other through anelectrolyte. These cells experience separate oxidation and reductionreactions at each electrode.

“Electrocrystallization”, as used herein, means an electroplatingtechnique that results in a crystalline metal deposit on one electrode(e.g., typically the cathode in an electrolytic cell).

“Electrode”, as used herein, means one of the two electronicallyconducting parts in an electrochemical cell, galvanic cell, electrolyticcell and/or capacitor, through which electrons are transported and/orexchanged with chemical reactants in a cell.

“Electroforming”, as used herein, means a process to produce metallicobjects by an electroplating technique. The metal is deposited onto aforming object (e.g., mandrel) of suitable shape and to a desiredthickness, followed by the removal of the forming object to result in afreestanding metal object.

“Electrokinetic effects” or “electrokinetics”, as used herein, means aprocess that arises due to a charge separation caused by the relativemotion of a solid and liquid phase. A portion of the so-called“Gouy-Chapman diffuse layer” is sheared as the two phases move relativeto each other, resulting in a charge separation.

“Electrolysis”, as used herein, means a process that decomposes achemical compound into its constituent elements and/or a process whichproduces a new compound by the action of an electrical current. Redoxreactions typically occur at the electrode (e.g., water is decomposed tohydrogen and oxygen by this process).

“Electrolyte”, as used herein, means a substance located between atleast a portion of an anode and a cathode and which is composed of atleast some positive and negative ions and which is capable oftransporting at least one ionic species therethrough.

“Electrolytic capacitor”, as used herein, means a storage device similarto other types of electrical capacitors, however, one of the conductingphases in this material is a metallic plate, and the other conductingphase is an electrolyte solution. The dielectric is typically a thinoxide film on the surface of the metal (e.g., aluminum or tantalum) thatcomprises one conducting phase of the capacitor.

“Electrolytic cell”, as used herein, means an electrochemical cell thatconverts electrical energy into chemical energy. The chemical reactionstypically do not occur spontaneously at the electrodes when theelectrodes are connected through an external circuit. The chemicalreaction is typically forced by applying an external electric current tothe electrodes. This cell is used to store electrical energy in chemicalform such as in, for example, a secondary or rechargeable battery. Theprocess of water being decomposed into hydrogen gas and oxygen is termedelectrolysis and such electrolysis is performed in an electrolytic cell.

“Electrolytic pickling”, as used herein, means a process for removingoxide scales from metal surfaces in preparation for electroplating. Themetal for which oxide scales are to be removed from is the cathode in anelectrolytic cell and the electrolyte contains a strong acidic solutionthat dissolves oxide scales.

“Electrometallurgy”, as used herein, means a branch of metallurgy whichutilizes electrochemical processes known as electrowinning.

“Electromigration”, as used herein, means the movement of ions under theinfluence of electrical potential difference.

“Electrophoresis”, as used herein, means the movement of small-suspendedparticles or large molecules in a liquid, such movement being driven byan electrical potential difference.

“Electroplating”, as used herein, means a process that produces a thin,metallic coating on the surface of another material (e.g., a metal oranother electrically conducting material such as graphite). Thesubstrate to be coated is situated to be the cathode in an electrolyticcell, where the cations of the electrolyte becomes the positive ions ofthe metal to be coated on the surface of the cathode. When a current isapplied, the electrode reaction occurring on the cathode is a reductionreaction causing the metal ions to become metal on the surface of thecathode.

“Electrorefining”, as used herein, means a process that produces apurified metal from a less pure metal. The metal to be purified issituated to be the anode in an electrolytic cell and the anode isdissolved by the application of a current into a usually acidic aqueouselectrolyte or a molten salt solution. At the same time, the pure metalis electroplated on the cathode. Examples of electrorefining includecopper that is electrorefined in aqueous solutions; and aluminum that iselectrorefined using a molten salt electrolyte.

“Electrowinning”, as used herein, means an electrochemical process thatproduces metals from their ores. In particular, metal oxides typicallyoccur in nature and electrochemical reduction is one of the mosteconomic methods for producing metals from these ores. In particular,the ore is dissolved in an acidic aqueous solution or molten salt andthe resulting electrolyte solution is electrolyzed. The metal iselectroplated on the cathode (e.g., either in a solid or liquid form)while oxygen is involved in the reaction at the anode. Copper, zinc,aluminum, magnesium and sodium are manufactured by this technique.

“Energy density”, as used herein, means the amount of electrical energystored per unit weight or volume in a cell or battery.

“Energy efficiency”, as used herein, in reference to a rechargeablebattery is expressed as a percentage of charge that is recoverableduring discharging.

“Environmental reaction condition”, as used herein, means and includestraditional reaction variables such as temperature, pressure, surfacearea of catalysts, physical catalyst size and shape, concentrations,electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magnetic fields, mechanicalforces, acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shape and composition andcombinations thereof, etc., which may be present and are capable ofinfluencing, positively or negatively, reaction pathways in a cellreaction system.

“Faraday's laws”, as used herein, means: (1) in any electrolytic processthe amount of chemical change produced is proportional to the totalamount of electrical charge passed through the cell; and (2) the mass ofthe chemicals changed is proportional to the equivalent weight of thechemicals involved. The proportionality constant is referred to as the“Faraday Number”.

“Flow fields”, as used herein, are present in some cells (e.g., fuelcells) and are typically, located adjacent to backing plates. Flow fieldplates or devices often serve a dual function as current collectors. Theflow fields are typically plates made of lightweight but strong andgas-impermeable electron-conducting materials. Typical materials includegraphites or metals. These plates are typically located adjacent tobacking layers and include at least one channel which is utilized tocarry, for example, reactant gases to an active area of amembrane/electrode assembly. These plates also conduct electronsproduced by oxidation of the anode.

“Frequency”, as used herein, means the number of times which a physicalevent (e.g., wave, field and/or motion) varies from the equilibriumvalue through a complete cycle in a unit of time (e.g., one second; andone cycle/sec=1 Hz). The variation from equilibrium can be positiveand/or negative, and can be, for example, symmetrical, asymmetricaland/or proportional with regard to the equilibrium value.

“Fuel cell”, as used herein, means an electrochemical device thatcontinuously converts the chemical energy of at least one externallysupplied fuel and at least one oxidant directly to electrical energy.

“Fuel cell reaction system”, as used herein, means all constituents in afuel cell including, but not limited to, reactants, intermediates,transients, activated complexes, physical catalysts, poisons, promoters,solvents, physical catalyst support materials, spectral catalysts,spectral energy catalysts, reaction products, environmental reactionconditions, spectral environmental reaction conditions, applied spectralenergy pattern, electrolytes, electrodes, backing layers, flow fields,etc., that are involved in any reaction pathway.

“Galvanic cell”, as used herein, means an electrochemical cell thatconverts chemical energy into electrical energy. Chemical reactions, inthis cell occur spontaneously at the electrodes when the electrodes areconnected by an external circuit, producing an electrical current.Examples of these cells include fuel cells and batteries.

“Galvanizing”, as used herein, means a process for coating iron or steelwith a thin layer of zinc for corrosion protection. Galvanizing isperformed electrochemically by an electroplating process or by a hot-dipgalvanizing process which consists of immersing the metal into a moltenzinc.

“Gas electrode”, as used herein, means any electrode in gaseous phase.

“Harmonic conditioning targeting”, as used herein, means the applicationof conditioning energy to a conditionable participant to condition theconditionable participant prior to the conditionable participantbecoming involved, and/or activated, in a cell reaction system, saidconditioning energy being provided by at least one of the followingspectral energy conditioning providers: spectral energy conditioningcatalyst; spectral conditioning catalyst; spectral energy conditioningpattern; spectral conditioning pattern; catalytic spectral energyconditioning pattern; catalytic spectral conditioning pattern; appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern and spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve harmonic resonance with atleast a portion of at least one conditionable participant (e.g.;reactants; physical catalysts; promoters, poisons; solvents; physicalcatalyst support materials; reaction vessels; conditioning reactionvessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof in any form of matter),said spectral energy conditioning provider providing conditioning energyto condition at least one conditionable participant(s) by interactingwith at least one frequency thereof, to form at least one conditionedparticipant which assists in producing at least one desired reactionproduct and/or at least one desired reaction product at a desiredreaction rate when the conditioned participant becomes involved with,and/or activated in, a cell reaction system.

“Harmonic targeting”, as used herein, means the application of energy toa cell reaction system by at least one of the following spectral energyproviders: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energypattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern; catalyticspectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve harmonic resonance with atleast one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients;intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reactionproducts; promoters, poisons; solvents; physical catalyst supportmaterials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof, saidspectral energy providers providing energy to at least one of said formsof matter by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, to produceat least one desired reaction product and/or at least one desiredreaction product at a desired reaction rate.

“Holoreaction system”, as used herein, means all components of the cellreaction system and the conditioning reaction system.

“Hydrolysis”, as used herein, means a chemical reaction in which waterreacts with another substance and causes decomposition of otherproducts, often including the reaction of water with a salt to create anacid or a base.

“Indirect electrolysis”, as used herein, means the production ofchemicals in an electrolytic cell through intermediate electrolysisproducts. In particular, an intermediate oxidizing/reducing agent isproduced at an electrode surface and the produced material can reactwith another material in the bulk solution.

“Intermediate”, as used herein, means a molecule, ion and/or atom whichis present between a reactant and a reaction product in a reactionpathway or reaction profile. It corresponds to a minimum in the reactionprofile of the reaction between reactant and reaction product. Areaction which involves an intermediate is typically a stepwisereaction.

“Ion-exchange membrane”, as used herein, means a sheet formed from anion exchange resin. These membranes typically allow only either positiveions (i.e., cation-exchange membranes) or negative ions (i.e.,anion-exchange membranes) to be transmitted.

“Ion-exchange resin”, as used herein, means a polymeric resin thatcontains electrically charged fragments (i.e., fixed ions) permanentlyattached to the polymer backbone; and wherein electrical neutrality isachieved by attached mobile “counter-ions” in the solution phase intowhich the resin is immersed.

“Laclanch-type cell”, as used herein, means a cell which utilizes a zincanode and a manganese dioxide cathode with ammonium chloride or zincchloride solution as an electrolyte. The electrolyte may be immobilizedpermitting the cell to be a dry cell. The overall cell reaction is:Zn+2MnO₂+2H₂O+ZnCl₂=2MnOOH+2Zn(OH)Cl.

“Lead-acid cell” or “Pb/acid battery”, as used herein, means a cell orbattery which utilizes a rechargeable acidic electrolyte and electrodesof lead and lead-oxide. The cathode is typically lead-oxide, the anodeis typically lead and the electrolyte is typically sulfuric acid. Thetypical half-reactions are:Pb+SO₄ ²⁻=PbSO₄ ²⁻(sol)+2e ⁻; andPbO₂+4H⁺+2e ⁻+SO₄ ²⁻(sol)=PbSO₄ ²⁻(sol).

“Lithium cell” or “Lithium battery”, as used herein, means a cell whichutilizes lithium as an anode and various materials as cathodes includingCF, MnO₂, FeS₂ and I₂. Various non-aqueous electrolytes comprised ofpolar-organic liquids (e.g., dimethyl ether, propylene carbonate, etc.)containing a dissolved lithium salt are used. Additionally, variouspolymer-based electrolytes such as polyethylene oxide/salt complexeshave also been used. Typical half-reactions include the following:Zn=Zn²⁺+2e ⁻Cd=Cd²⁺+2e ⁻Li=Li⁺ +e ⁻.Examples of overall cell reactions include:Li(CF)_(n)=LiF+C;Li+MnO₂=LiMnO₂;Li+FeS₂=Li₂S+Fe;andLi+½I₂=LiI.

“Lithium ion battery” or “Lithium ion cell”, as used herein, means arechargeable cell which functions in a somewhat similar manner to thelithium cell. These batteries have very good power to weight ratios.

“Magnetoelectrochemistry”, as used herein, means electrochemicalphenomena occurring under the influence of magnetic field(s).

“Mass transport”, as used herein means the movement or transportation ofmass (e.g., chemical compounds, ions, etc.) from one part of a system toanother. This phenomena is typically associated with diffusion andconvection, but can also occur through electromigration.

“Membrane/Electrode assembly” or “MEA”, as used herein, means thecombination of the anode/membrane/cathode in a fuel cell. The assemblyalso often includes a catalyst on, in and/or around at least a portionof one or both of the electrodes.

“Molten carbonate fuel cell” or “MCFC”, as used herein, means fuel cellswhich use a liquid solution of lithium, sodium and/or potassiumcarbonates, soaked in a matrix for an electrolyte. These fuel cellstypically operate at temperatures of about 650° C. or higher. Thesehigher temperatures are required in order to achieve sufficientconductivity of ions through the electrolyte. Due to these operatingtemperatures, metal catalysts are typically not required forelectrochemical oxidation and reduction reactions. These cells operateon various fuels including, but not limited to, hydrogen, carbonmonoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel and/orsimulated coal gasification products.

“Nernst equation”, as used herein, means an equation which defines theequilibrium potential of an electrode. The potential is the sum of thestandard electrode potential and a correction term for the deviationfrom unit concentrations of reactant and product from the electrodereaction.

“NiCd battery” or “NiCd cell”, as used herein, means a cell whichutilizes Ni(OH)₂ as the cathode, a Cd anode and an aqueous potassiumhydroxide (KOH) electrolyte. The overall cell reaction is:2NiOOH+2H₂O+Cd=2Ni(OH)₂+Cd(OH)₂.These cells have high cycle life (i.e., into the thousands) and longshelf lives without significant self-discharge. However, these cellshave somewhat lower power densities.

“NIMH battery” or Nickel Metal Hydride Cell”, as used herein means, ananode comprising a metal hydride electrode that serves as a solid sourceof hydrogen. Classical examples of anodes used in these cells includealloys of V, Ti, Zr, Ni, Cr, Co and Fe. The cathode comprises nickel andthe electrolyte comprises aqueous KOH.

“Non-harmonic heterodyne conditioning targeting”, as used herein, meansthe application of conditioning energy to a conditionable participant tocondition the conditionable participant prior to the conditionableparticipant being involved, and/or activated, in a cell reaction system,said conditioning energy being provided by at least one of the followingspectral energy conditioning providers: spectral energy conditioningcatalyst; spectral conditioning catalyst; spectral energy conditioningpattern; spectral conditioning pattern; catalytic spectral energyconditioning pattern; catalytic spectral conditioning pattern; appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern and spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve non-harmonic heterodyneresonance with at least a portion of at least one conditionableparticipant (e.g.; reactants; physical catalysts; promoters; poisons;solvents; physical catalyst support materials; reaction vessels;conditioning reaction vessels and/or mixtures or components thereof inany form of matter), said spectral energy conditioning providerproviding conditioning energy to condition at least one conditionableparticipant by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, to format least one conditioned participant which assists in producing at leastone desired reaction product and/or at least one desired reactionproduct at a desired reaction rate when the conditioned participantbecomes involved with, and/or activated in, a cell reaction system.

“Non-harmonic heterodyne targeting”, as used herein, means theapplication of energy to a cell reaction system by at least one of thefollowing spectral energy providers: spectral energy catalyst; spectralcatalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectralenergy pattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energypattern and spectral environmental reaction condition to achievenon-harmonic heterodyne resonance with at least one of the followingforms of matter: reactants; transients; intermediates; activatedcomplexes; physical catalysts; reaction products; promoters; poisons;solvents; physical catalyst support materials; reaction vessels; and/ormixtures or components thereof, said spectral energy provider providingenergy to at least one of said forms of matter by interacting with atleast one frequency thereof, to produce at least one desired reactionproduct and/or at least one desired reaction product at a desiredreaction rate.

“Overpotential”, as used herein, means a difference in the electrodepotential of an electrode between its equilibrium potential and itsoperating potential when a current is flowing.

“Overvoltage”, as used herein, means the difference between cell voltagewith a current flowing and an open-circuit voltage.

“Participant”, as used herein, means reactant, current, transient,intermediate, activated complex, physical catalyst, promoter, poisonand/or reaction product comprised of molecules, macromolecules, ionsand/or atoms (or components thereof).

“Phosphoric acid fuel cell” or “PAFC”, as used herein, means theelectrolyte utilized is liquid phosphoric acid soaked in a matrix.Operating temperatures are in the range of about 150-200° C. These typesof fuel cells typically use a noble metal, such as platinum, as acatalyst.

“Photoelectrochemical cell” or “photogalvanic cell” or “solar cell”, asused herein, means a galvanic cell wherein usable current and voltageare simultaneously produced upon absorption of light by at least one ofthe electrodes.

“Photoelectrochemistry”, as used herein, means the interaction of lightwith electrochemical systems.

“Photoelectrolytic cell”, as used herein, means an electrolytic cellwherein the production of chemicals is caused, or influenced, by theabsorption of light by at least one of the electrodes. The processoccurring in such a cell is termed photoelectrosynthesis.

“Photoelectrosynthesis”, as used herein, means the production ofchemicals in a photoelectrolytic cell, where the production is caused,or influenced, by the absorption of light by at least one of theelectrodes.

“Plasma”, as used herein means, an approximately electrically neutral(quasineutral) collection of electrically activated atoms or molecules,or ions (positive and/or negative) and electrons which may or may notcontain a background neutral gas, and at least a portion of which iscapable of responding to at least electric and/or magnetic fields.

“Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell” or “PEMFC”, as used herein,means those fuel cells which utilize a polymer or proton exchangemembrane which, typically, comprises a relatively thin polymer sheet.The polymer membrane is, typically, coated on both sides with a mixtureof a catalyst and an electron conductor. The electrolyte is typically asolid organic polymer known as a sulfonated fluoroethylene or apoly-perflourosulfonic acid. Hydrogen is the fuel source typically usedand is fed to the anode side of the cell where hydrogen atoms arecreated and reduced to hydrogen ions (i.e., protons) which are thenconducted through the polymer electrolyte to the anode side of the cell,where they are combined with oxygen and electrons to form water.

“Power density”, as used herein, means a parameter in a batteryindicating the electrical power per unit weight or per unit volume.

“Primary cell” or “primary battery” or “non-rechargeable battery”, asused herein, means a cell or battery in which the chemical reactionsystem providing the electrical current is not readily reversible by achemical process. This cell provides current until substantially all ofthe chemicals inside it are utilized. The cell or battery is typicallydiscarded after a single discharge. This cell or battery always operatesas a galvanic cell in which the anode is the negative electrode and thecathode is the positive electrode.

“Protonic-ceramic fuel cell”, as used herein, means a ceramic materialis used as the electrolyte and the ceramic exhibits high protonicconductivity at elevated temperatures. These types of fuel cells operateat relatively high temperatures of at least about 700° C. The highoperating high temperatures permit electrochemical oxidation of fossilfuels directly at, for example, the anode. Accordingly, hydrogen ionsare formed at the electrode even when precursors to hydrogen aresupplied, and such hydrogen ions are then absorbed directly into theelectrolyte. Carbon dioxide is the primary reaction product of thesefuel cells.

“Reactant”, as used herein, means a starting material or startingcomponent in a cell reaction system. A reactant can be any inorganic,organic and/or biologic atom, molecule, macromolecule, ion, compound,substance, and/or the like.

“Reaction coordinate”, as used herein, means an intra- orinter-molecular/atom configurational variable whose change correspondsto the conversion of reactant into reaction product.

“Reaction pathway”, as used herein, means those steps which lead to theformation of reaction product(s). A reaction pathway may includeintermediates and/or transients and/or activated complexes. A reactionpathway may include some or all of a reaction profile.

“Reaction product”, as used herein, means any product of a reactioninvolving a reactant. A reaction product may have a different chemicalcomposition from a reactant or a substantially similar (or exactly thesame) chemical composition but exhibit a different physical orcrystalline structure and/or phase and/or properties. A reaction productmay also be a current. “Reaction profile”, as used herein means a plotof energy (e.g., molecular potential

energy, molar enthalpy, or free energy) against reaction coordinate forthe conversion of reactant(s) into reaction product(s).

“Regenerative fuel cells”, as used herein, means a closed-looped form ofpower generation. In particular, water is typically separated intohydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyzing source. Thehydrogen and oxygen are then fed into a fuel cell (e.g., a PEM fuelcell) to generate electricity, heat and water. The reaction product ofwater is then recirculated back to the solar powered electrolyzer andthe process begins again in a closed-looped manner.

“Residual current” or “residual current density”, as used herein, meansa small faradic current density flowing through an electrode underconditions where zero faradic current is expected (e.g., within anelectrical double-layer range). This type of current is typically causedby traces of impurities present in the electrolyte.

“Resultant energy conditioning pattern”, as used herein, means thetotality of energy interactions between the applied spectral energyconditioning pattern with at least one conditionable participant beforesaid conditionable participant becomes involved, and/or activated, in acell reaction system as a conditioned participant.

“Resultant energy pattern”, as used herein, means the totality of energyinteractions between the applied spectral energy pattern with allparticipants and/or components in the cell reaction system.

“Secondary cell” or “secondary battery” or “rechargeable battery”, asused herein, means a cell or battery in which the chemical reactionsystem providing electrical current is readily reversible chemically.Specifically, after discharging, this cell or battery can be rechargedby applying an electrical current to its terminals. Certain of thesebatteries or cells can be recharged hundreds or thousands of times suchas, for example, a lead-acid battery. These batteries or cells operateas a galvanic cell during discharge and as an electrolytic cell duringcharge. Accordingly, the anode is the negative electrode duringdischarging, while the anode becomes the positive electrode duringcharging.

“Self discharge”, as used herein, means a slow discharging of a batterywithout being connected to an external load. These types of reactionsare typically caused by impurities and/or side reactions (i.e.,reactions occurring other than the primary reaction) within a cell.

“Shelf life”, as used herein, means a time period for non-rechargeablebatteries storage whereby electrochemical reactions of suitablemagnitude are still capable of occurring.

“Sodium/Sulfur battery” or “Sodium/Sulfur cell”, as used herein, meanscells that utilize molten sodium metal as the anode, molten sulfur asthe cathode and a solid aluminum oxide electrolyte. The overall cellreaction is2Na+xS=NaS_(x).

“Solid oxide fuel cell” or “SOFC”, as used herein, means a solid oxideis used as an electrolyte in this fuel cell. Suitable solid oxides,typically ceramic materials, include the following materials: yttriumstabilized zirconia; scandium doped zirconia; samarium doped ceria;gadolinium doped ceria; yttrium doped ceria; calcium doped ceria;lanthanum strontium gallium magnesium; bismuth yttrium oxide; strontiumcerate; and barium cerate. The yttrium stabilized zirconia solidelectrolytes are the most common of the electrolytes used. These fuelcells operate at temperatures of up to about 1000° C. These fuel cellsare typically formed in the shape of tubes.

“Sonoelectrochemistry”, as used herein, means electrochemical phenomenaand processes occurring under the influence of sound waves.

“Spectral catalyst”, as used herein, means electromagnetic energy whichacts as a catalyst in a cell reaction system, for example,electromagnetic energy having a spectral pattern which affects,controls, or directs a reaction pathway.

“Spectral conditioning catalyst”, as used herein, means electromagneticenergy which, when applied to a conditionable participant to form aconditioned participant, assists the conditioned participant to act as acatalyst in a cell reaction system, for example, electromagnetic energyhaving a spectral conditioning pattern which causes the conditionedparticipant to affect, control, or direct a reaction pathway in a cellreaction system when the conditioned participant becomes involved with,and/or activated in, the cell reaction system.

“Spectral conditioning environmental reaction condition”, as usedherein, means at least one frequency and/or field which simulates atleast a portion of at least one conditioning environmental reactioncondition.

“Spectral conditioning pattern”, as used herein, means a pattern formedby one or more electromagnetic frequencies emitted or absorbed afterexcitation of an atom or molecule. A spectral conditioning pattern maybe formed by any known spectroscopic technique.

“Spectral energy catalyst”, as used herein, means energy which acts as acatalyst in a cell reaction system having a spectral energy patternwhich affects, controls, and/or directs a reaction pathway.

“Spectral energy conditioning catalyst”, as used herein, meansconditioning energy which, when applied to a conditionable participant,assists a conditionable participant, once conditioned, to act as acatalyst in a cell reaction system, the conditioned participant having aspectral energy pattern which affects, controls and/or directs areaction pathway when the conditioned participant becomes involved with,and/or activated in, the cell reaction system.

“Spectral energy conditioning pattern”, as used herein, means a patternformed by one or more conditioning energies and/or components emitted orabsorbed by a molecule, ion, atom and/or component(s) thereof and/orwhich is present by and/or within a molecule, ion, atom and/orcomponent(s) thereof.

“Spectral energy pattern”, as used herein, means a pattern formed by oneor more energies and/or components emitted or absorbed by a molecule,ion, atom and/or component(s) thereof and/or which is present by and/orwithin a molecule, ion, atom and/or component(s) thereof. For example,the spectral energy pattern could be a series of electromagneticfrequencies designed to heterodyne with reaction intermediates, or thespectral energy pattern could be the portion of the actual spectrumemitted by a reaction intermediate.

“Spectral environmental reaction condition”, as used herein, means atleast one frequency and/or field which simulates at least a portion ofat least one environmental reaction condition in a cell reaction system.

“Spectral pattern”, as used herein, means a pattern formed by one ormore electromagnetic frequencies emitted or absorbed after excitation ofan atom or molecule. A spectral pattern may be formed by any knownspectroscopic technique.

“Targeting”, as used herein, means the application of energy to a cellreaction system by at least one of the following spectral energyproviders: spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energypattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern; catalyticspectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern; and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonance and/orharmonic resonance and/or non-harmonic heterodyne-resonance with atleast one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients;intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reactionproducts; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst supportmaterials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components thereof, saidspectral energy provider providing energy to at least one of said formsof matter by interacting with at least one frequency thereof, to produceat least one desired reaction product and/or at least one desiredreaction product at a desired reaction rate.

“Throwing power”, as used herein, means the ability of an electroplatingsystem to produce a uniformly thick deposit on a substrate surface.

“Transient”, as used herein, means any chemical and/or physical statethat exists between reactant(s) and reaction product(s) in a reactionpathway or reaction profile.

“Zinc air cell”, as used herein, means a cell which uses a gas diffusionelectrode, a zinc anode separated by an electrolyte and some form ofmechanical separators. The gas diffusion electrode permits atmosphericoxygen to pass through. The oxygen is converted into hydroxyl ions andwater and the hydroxyl ions travel through an electrolyte to the zincanode. The hydroxyl ions react with zinc and zinc oxide is formed. Theformation of zinc oxide creates an electrical potential.

“Zinc-carbon battery” or “Zinc-carbon cell”, as used herein, means abattery or cell wherein the electrodes are comprised of zinc and carbon,respectively, with an acidic paste serving as the electrolyte.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention overcomes many of the deficiencies associated withvarious electrochemical reactions occurring in a variety of differentenvironments. More importantly, this invention discloses a variety ofnovel spectral energy techniques, referred to sometimes herein asspectral electrochemistry, that can be utilized in a number of reactionsin a cell reaction system, including very basic reactions, which may bedesirable to achieve or to permit to occur in many of thechemical/electrochemical reactions utilized in various cell reactionsystems. These spectral energy techniques can be used to improve, forexample, (1) the supply of fuel to the cell reaction systems; (2)assisting in one or both of the half-reactions occurring at theelectrodes, to, for example, increase the rate of the reaction(s) and/ordecrease the amount of physical catalyst required; (3) assisting in thetransport of one or more ionic species into/through various electrolytematerials; and/or (4) assisting in the movement, into and/or from, ofvarious reactants and/or reaction products through at least a portion ofa cell reaction system (e.g., the movement of air molecules and/or watermolecules through at least a portion of a backing layer material in aPEMFC).

Further, the invention discloses a variety of novel spectral energyconditioning techniques, referred to sometimes herein as spectralconditioning electrochemistry, or conditioning electrochemistryenergies, that can be utilized to condition a conditionable participant.Once a conditionable participant has been conditioned, the conditionedparticipant can be used in a cell reaction system. These spectral energyconditioning techniques can be used to condition at least oneconditionable participant which can thereafter be used in, for example,any type of organic or inorganic cell reaction system, biological cellreaction system (e.g., plant and animal), industrial cell reactionsystem, etc. Further, the conditioned participant may itself compriseboth a reactant and a reaction product, whereby, for example, thechemical composition of the conditioned participant does notsubstantially change (if at all) but one or more physical properties orstructures and/or phases is changed once the conditioned participant isinvolved with, and/or activated by, the cell reaction system.

These novel spectral energy techniques (now referred to as spectralelectrochemistry) and novel spectral energy conditioning techniques (nowreferred to as spectral electrochemistry conditioning) are possible toachieve due to the fundamental discoveries contained herein thatdisclose various means for achieving the transfer of energy (orpreventing the transfer of energy) and/or controlling the energydynamics and controlling the resonant exchange of energy between, forexample, at least two entities. The invention teaches that the key fortransferring energy between two entities (e.g., one entity sharingenergy with another entity) is that when frequencies match, energytransfers. For example: (1) matching of frequencies of spectral energypatterns of two different forms of matter or matching of frequencies ofa spectral energy pattern of matter with energy in the form of aspectral energy catalyst; and/or (2) matching of frequencies of spectralenergy conditioning patterns of two different forms of matter ormatching of frequencies of a spectral energy pattern of matter withenergy in the form of a spectral conditioning catalyst. In the case ofachieving the transfer of energy between, for example, a spectral energyconditioning pattern and a conditionable participant, once conditioningenergy has been transferred, the conditioned participant can thereafterfavorably utilize its conditioned energy pattern in a cell reactionsystem. The aforementioned entities may both be comprised of matter(solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/or mixtures and/or componentsthereof), both comprised of various form(s) of energy, or one comprisedof various form(s) of energy and the other comprised of matter (solids,liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/or mixtures and/or componentsthereof).

More specifically, all matter can be represented by spectral energypatterns, which can be quite simple to very complex in appearance,depending on, for example, the complexity of the matter. One example ofa spectral energy pattern is a spectral pattern (or a spectralconditioning pattern) which likewise can be quite simple to quitecomplex in appearance, depending on, for example, the complexity of thematter. In the case of matter represented by spectral patterns (orspectral conditioning patterns), matter can exchange energy with othermatter if, for example, the spectral patterns of the two forms of mattermatch, at least partially, or can be made to match or overlap, at leastpartially (e.g., spectral curves or spectral patterns (or spectralconditioning patterns) comprising one or more electromagneticfrequencies may overlap with each other). In general, but not in allcases, the greater the overlap in spectral patterns (and thus, thegreater the overlap of frequencies comprising the spectral patterns orspectral conditioning patterns), the greater the amount of energytransferred. Likewise, for example, if the spectral pattern (or spectralconditioning pattern) of at least one form of energy can be caused tomatch or overlap, at least partially, with the spectral pattern ofmatter, (e.g., a participant or a conditionable participant) energy willalso transfer to the matter. Thus, energy can be transferred to matterby causing frequencies to match.

As discussed elsewhere herein, energy (E), frequency (v) and wavelength(λ) and the speed of light (c) in a vacuum are interrelated through, forexample, the following equation:E=hv=hc/λWhen a frequency or set of frequencies corresponding to at least a firstform of matter can be caused to match with a frequency or set offrequencies corresponding to at least a second form of matter, energycan transfer between the different forms of matter and permit at leastsome interaction and/or reaction to occur involving at least one of thetwo different forms of matter. For example, solid, liquid, gas and/orplasma (and/or mixtures and/or portions thereof) forms of matter caninteract and/or react and form a desirable reaction product or result.Any combination(s) of the above forms of matter (e.g., solid/solid,solid/liquid, solid/gas, solid/plasma, solid/gas/plasma,solid/liquid/gas, etc., and/or mixtures and/or portions thereof) arepossible to achieve for desirable interactions and/or reactions to occurin various cell reaction systems in biologic, organic and/or inorganicsystems.

For example, the techniques of the present invention can be utilized tohelp in the formation of desirable fuels to be input and/or stored invarious cell reaction systems and/or fuel cell reaction systems. Forexample, if hydrogen gas (H₂) was a desired fuel to be used/stored, aprecursor to hydrogen (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel, methanol, methane,ethanol, ammonia, etc.) may be provided/stored as a source of hydrogen.In these instances, the precursor typically needs to be broken down orreformed into H₂ gas. These types of reforming reactions can be assistedby the techniques of the present invention.

Further, for example, if H₂ gas was a desired fuel, hydrogen could bestored in a solid state. In this regard, if hydrogen can be readilystored and released, the amount of hydrogen that is capable of beingstored in the same volume as a highly compressed gas is about 5-10 timesthe amount. The techniques of the present invention can be used toassist in the storage and/or release of hydrogen that is absorbed into,for example, a metal or metal alloy such as palladium, lithium,beryllium, titanium, aluminum, (e.g., Pd₂H, TiFeH₂, etc.), by, forexample, inputting a spectral energy to the metallic material thatreacts with the material in such a way as to produce electromagneticemissions from the materials that are resonant with hydrogen'selectronic frequencies. For example, a spectral energy pattern couldheterodyne with an inherent frequency of the metallic material toproduce a hydrogen electronic frequency, or electromagnetic radiation ofone frequency could be absorbed by a color center of the material, whichin turn emits at a frequency resonant with hydrogen.

The techniques of the present invention can also assist with either ofthe electrochemical half-reactions which occur at the anode or cathodein a variety of cell reaction systems. For example, in lower temperaturefuel cell reaction systems such as PEMFC and PAFC, catalysts areutilized to assist in increasing the reaction rates of theelectrochemical reaction. Catalysts may also be utilized in somehigh-temperature reaction fuel systems, but are not as necessary in thatthe higher temperatures themselves, typically, assist in catalyzingcertain reactions. However, with regard to the lower temperaturereactions in fuel cells such as PEMFC and PAFC, the physical catalyststhat are provided at, near and/or within the anode and/or the cathodeare typically finely divided metals. As a specific example, the PEM fuelcells that utilize hydrogen as a fuel, experience an oxidation reactionat the anode where hydrogen gas molecules are converted into hydrogenions (i.e., protons) with the assistance of platinum. The platinum istypically provided on at least a portion of a porous electrode. In mostcases, the platinum is actually mixed with an appropriate powderelectrode material and the two powdered materials are together appliedby printing the powders onto each side of a polymer membrane. Asdisclosed elsewhere herein, the various frequencies of platinum resonatewith various hydrogen frequencies as well as various frequencies whichare intermediate in the formation of water. Accordingly, the use of aspectral energy provider, such as a spectral catalyst or a spectralenergy catalyst, irradiated onto, into and/or around at least a portionof an electrode, which may or may not contain a physical catalyst (e.g.,the spectral energy catalyst may augment a physical catalyst or may besupplied instead of a physical catalyst) can result in effectivecatalyzation of the desired oxidation reaction.) Similarly, the use of aspectral energy conditioning provider, such as a spectral conditioningcatalyst or a spectral energy conditioning catalyst, irradiates orinteracts with a conditionable participant to condition theconditionable participant and form a conditioned participant (e.g.,transport ion)which can be located on, in and/or around at least aportion of an electrode. The electrode may or may not contain a physicalcatalyst and/or a conditioned participant (e.g., the spectralconditioning energy may form a conditioned participant that may augmenta physical catalyst or be supplied instead of a physical catalyst) andmay result in effective catalyzation of the desired oxidation reaction.Moreover, combinations of spectral energy providers, spectral energyconditioning providers, conditionable participants and/or physicalcatalysts could also be utilized in a holoreaction system.

As discussed elsewhere herein, the composition, size and/or shape of anymaterial(s) combined with and/or contacting or even simply juxtaposed toa catalyst (i.e., traditional or electrodic) can have positive ornegative catalyzing effects. In particular, for example, the spectralpatterns of one or more materials combined, contacting and/or juxtaposedto a catalyst can result in desirable or undesirable changes to thespectral pattern of the catalyst. Further, by understanding thatphysical materials that are combined, contacting and/or juxtaposed to aphysical catalyst can result in a desirable influence on a physicalcatalyst, specific materials can be chosen for such purposes and/oradditional materials (or additional conditioned materials) and/orspectral energy providers (and/or spectral energy conditioningproviders) used to condition conditionable participants can be utilizedto obtain enhanced performance of the physical catalyst includingcharge-transfer catalysts. These mechanisms are discussed in muchgreater detail later herein. Accordingly, the techniques of the presentinvention assist in controlling the various reactions that occur in manycell reaction systems.

Moreover, the techniques of the present invention can be used in asimilar manner at the cathode where, for example, a reduction reactionor charge-transfer catalysis occurs. In the case of the aforementionedPEM fuel cell, for example, oxygen is caused to flow near the cathodeand oxygen reacts with hydrogen ions (i.e., protons) which have migratedthrough the polymer membrane and combines with electrons to form watermolecules. Once again, platinum can be utilized as a physical catalystto catalyze the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen to form water. As statedelsewhere herein, various intermediates are formed in this process(e.g., hydroxy ions and hydrogen atoms) and numerous platinum energyfrequencies resonate with many of these intermediates, as well asreactants, in the water formation reaction. Accordingly, similar to theabove discussion regarding the anode, if a spectral energy provider,such as a spectral catalyst or a spectral energy catalyst, were providedalone or in combination with a physical catalyst, (e.g., as the onlysource of catalyst or augmenting an existing physical catalyst,respectively) then the applied spectral energy provider will assist inthe rate of the reduction reaction. Likewise, if a spectral energyconditioning provider, such as a spectral conditioning catalyst or aspectral energy conditioning catalyst, were provided to a conditionableparticipant to form a conditioned participant, and the conditionedparticipant was present, alone or in combination with a physicalcatalysts (e.g., as the only source of catalyst or augmenting anexisting physical catalysts, respectively) then the conditionedparticipant could assist in the rate of the reduction reaction.Moreover, combinations of spectral energy providers, spectral energyconditioning providers, conditioned participants and/or physicalcatalysts, etc., could also be utilized.

Still further, the techniques of the present invention can assist in thetransport of ions into, through and/or from the electrolyte, one of theslowest processes in electrochemical reactions. For example, byunderstanding the particular ionic transfer mechanism which occurs inthe different electrolytes, the present invention can apply a suitablespectral energy provider, such as a spectral catalyst or spectral energycatalyst and/or a suitable spectral energy conditioning provider, (e.g.,a spectral conditioning environmental reaction condition) which canenhance the dissolution of ionic species into the electrolyte byaffecting the dynamic equilibrium between bound and dissociated ions.(For an example, see a discussion of H₂→2H, discussed later herein).Further, conduction of ions through the electrolyte can be enhancedusing spectral electromagnetic frequencies such as rotationalfrequencies. In this regard, depending upon the particular electrolyteand the particular ionic species which needs to be transported, variousenvironmental conditions can be simulated by an appropriate spectralenvironmental conditioning reaction condition. Likewise, othertechniques which could be utilized to enhance ion transport include: (1)inputting, for example, a resonant or harmonic frequency correspondingto the wavelength between the bonding sites for the ionic species whichis being transported through the electrolyte; (2) utilizing ioncyclotron resonance, for example, by inputting the naturally occurringfrequency of gyration radius to the ions in the electrolyte, or byapplying magnetic field lines to the electrolyte thereby modifying thespiral trajections of the ions and inputting the modified frequency ofthe gyration radius; (3) applying at least one spectral environmentalreaction condition which imitates, for example, at least onetemperature, concentration and/or pressure gradient within at least aportion of the electrolyte which causes ions to migrate from thesehigher temperatures, concentrations and/or pressure areas to the lowercorresponding region; and/or (4) by exposing the electrolyte to aspectral frequency that is resonant with the migrating ions in theelectrolyte; and (5) by spectrally conditioning an electrolyte solutionthereby altering its material properties as a solvent and hencetransport medium.

Also, the rate of ionic species transfer to an electrolyte in a chemicaltransformation can be enhanced with spectral energy providers. Forexample, a receiving electrode can project an electromagneticscaffolding that resonates with and attracts an ionic species, such asits electronic spectral pattern.

In each of the above-discussed instances, the applications of: (1) aspectral energy provider (e.g., in the form of, for example, a catalyticspectral energy pattern, a catalytic spectral pattern, a spectral energypattern, a spectral energy catalyst, a spectral pattern, a spectralcatalyst, a spectral environmental reaction condition and/orcombinations thereof, which can collectively result in an appliedspectral energy pattern being applied in at least a portion of a cellreaction system); and/or (2) a spectral energy conditioning provider(e.g., in the form of, for example, a catalytic spectral energyconditioning pattern, a catalytic spectral conditioning pattern, aspectral energy conditioning pattern, a spectral energy conditioningcatalyst, a spectral conditioning pattern, a spectral conditioningcatalyst, a spectral environmental conditioning reaction conditionand/or combinations thereof, which can collectively result in an appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern being applied to a conditionableparticipant in a conditioning reaction system) can occur by one or moreof the following techniques including:

(1) use of suitable directors of energy such as fiberoptic cables,waveguides, transducers, transmission elements etc., which can bedirected to provide energy to at least a portion of the cell reactionsystem where a desirable reaction is to occur;

(2) providing energy to at least a portion of, or a side of, forexample, an electrolyte, whereby the electrolyte is capable oftransmitting (e.g., through one or more faces or portions thereof) theapplied energy to at least another portion of a cell reaction system(e.g., a portion of a catalyst located on an adjacent anode and/orcathode). The energy can be targeted to the ions, solution, or an ionsolution interaction;

(3) including one or more suitable members (e.g., membrane capable oftransmitting energy) within at least a portion of an electrode and/or inat least a portion of electrolyte which permits energy to be introducedto at least a portion of an electrode where a reaction is to occurand/or in the case of augmenting to at least a portion of an electrodeor portion of a cell reaction system where a physical catalyst islocated;

(4) providing conditioning energy to one or more reactants prior to its(their) arrival and reaction in the cell reaction system at, and/or nearthe anode and/or cathode to augment physical catalyst activity;

(5) applying a spectral energy pattern (or a spectral energyconditioning pattern) in a reformer reaction used to provide fuel for acell reaction system whereby, for example, reactions in the reformer arecontrolled and/or directed and/or products leaving the reformer areaffected prior to their arrival in the cell reaction system;

(6) controlling cell reaction system parameters such that the currentand/or electrical field strength generated are optimized to producedesirable Stark frequencies and optimal reaction rates;

(7) controlling inherent fuel reaction system parameters, or applyingexternal magnetic fields such that desired Zeeman frequencies areproduced in the cell reaction system, thereby optimizing at least onereaction rate;

(8) applying at least one form of energy to increase the flow ofreactants in the cell reaction system; and/or

(9) applying at least one form of energy directly to at least a portionof a cell reaction system to cause and/or influence at least onereaction therein.

In all such cases, the goal of providing energy in an appropriate amountand to the appropriate location would be the primary impetus fordeciding what techniques, or combinations of techniques, would be mostdesirable. In this regard, so long as an appropriate energy pattern fora cell reaction (and/or conditioning energy pattern in a conditioningreaction system), as discussed above, is delivered to, at least aportion of the cell reaction system (or conditioning reaction system)where a desirable reaction is to occur, then the delivered energypattern (and/or conditioning energy pattern) can ultimately serve toenhance desired chemical reactions (e.g., electrochemical and/orelectrolytic) within the cell reaction system (e.g., either directly orthrough a conditioned participant).

The techniques of the present invention are suitable to each of theknown cell reaction systems. In this regard, in each of the cellreaction systems that involve oxidation reactions and reductionreactions, the techniques of the present invention can be utilized toenhance one or more of such reactions, depending upon for example, theparticular rates of reaction that are desired to be achieved. In thisregard, matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/ormixtures and/or portions thereof) can be caused, or influenced, tointeract and/or react with other matter and/or portions thereof in, forexample, a desired reaction in a cell reaction system along a desiredreaction pathway by applying energy, in the form of, for example, acatalytic spectral energy pattern, a catalytic spectral pattern, aspectral energy pattern, a spectral energy catalyst, a spectral pattern,a spectral catalyst, a spectral environmental reaction condition, and/orcombinations thereof, which can collectively result in an appliedspectral energy pattern being applied in at least a portion of the cellreaction system.

Further, the conditioning techniques of the present invention aresuitable to each of the known cell reaction systems. In this regard, ineach of the cell reaction systems that involve oxidation reactions andreduction reactions, the conditioning techniques of the presentinvention can be utilized to enhance one or more of such reactions byforming a conditioned participant in a conditioning reaction systemdepending upon, for example, the particular rates of reaction that aredesired to be achieved in a cell reaction system. In this regard,conditionable matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/ormixtures and/or portions thereof) can be conditioned and then introducedinto a cell reaction system to cause, or influence or interact and/orreact with other matter and/or portions in a cell reaction system alonga desired reaction pathway. A conditioned participant can be formed byapplying conditioning energy in the form of, for example, a catalyticspectral energy conditioning pattern, a catalytic spectral conditioningpattern, a spectral energy conditioning pattern, a spectral energyconditioning catalyst, a spectral conditioning pattern, a spectralconditioning catalyst, a spectral environmental conditioning reactioncondition, and/or combinations thereof, which can collectively result inan applied spectral energy conditioning pattern being applied in atleast a portion of a conditioning reaction system. The conditionedparticipant can thereafter favorably influence a cell reaction system.

The techniques of the present invention are applicable to the followingnon-inclusive list of cell reaction systems: alkaline batteries oralkaline cells; anodic protection or corrosion protection systems;anodizing cells; batteries; bioelectrochemical cell reaction systems;brine electrolysis processes; corrosion cell reaction systems; drycells; electroacoustic cells; electroanalytical chemistry techniques;electrochemical cells; electrocrystallization cells; electroformingcells; electrokinetic cells; electrolysis reactions; electrolytereactions; electrode reactions; electrolytic cells; electrolyticpickling reactions; electrometallurgical reactions; electromigrationreactions; electrophoresis reactions; electroplating cells;electrorefining cells; electrowinning cells; fuel cells; galvanic cells;galvanizing reactions; hydrolysis reactions; ion exchange membranereactions; ion-resin systems; Laclanch-type cells; lithium cells orlithium batteries; lithium ion batteries or lithium ion cells;magnetoelectrochemical reactions; mass transport reactions; reactions inmembrane/electrode assemblies; NiCd batteries or NiCd cells; NiMHbatteries or nickel-metal hydride cells; photoelectrochemical orphotogalvanic or solar cells; photoelectrochemistry reactions;photoelectrolytic cells; photoelectrosynthesis reactions; plasmareactions; secondary cells or secondary batteries or rechargeablebatteries; sodium/sulfur batteries or sodium/sulfur cells;sonoelectrochemistry reactions; zinc air cells; and zinc-carbonbatteries or zinc-carbon cells.

In addition to the redox reactions which occur in the varioustechniques, processes, systems, cells and/or cell reaction systemslisted immediately above, the techniques of the present invention arealso applicable in capacitor cell reaction systems. In this regard, thetechniques of the present invention are more broadly applicable totechniques other than simple redox reactions which involve, typically,electrolytes. Specifically, the techniques of the present invention (andthe conditioning techniques of the present invention) are alsoapplicable to capacitor cell reaction systems which utilize dielectricsrather than electrolytes. However, certain capacitors also utilizeelectrolyte-like materials, for example, as at least one electrode.

Electrical capacitors, or electrical condensers, are electrical deviceswhich store up electricity or electrical energy. The action of storingthis electrical energy can be viewed as being analogous to a gas tankused for the storage of gas. The amount of electricity which a capacitorcan hold depends upon the electrical pressure or voltage applied to thecapacitor, just as the amount of gas that tank can hold depends upon thepressure of the gas in the tank. For example, if the pressure is doubledon a tank of gas, twice the amount of gas can be forced into the tank;likewise, if the electrical pressure or voltage applied to a capacitoris doubled, twice the amount of electricity can be forced into thecapacitor. Thus, in capacitors, the “electrical size” is designated as aform of capacity. The capacity of an electrical capacitor is the ratioof the quantity of electricity and the electrical pressure or voltage.The ratio is expressed as follows:Q=CVwherein, Q=quantity of electricity, C=capacity of the capacitor and V=electrical pressure or voltage. Thus, the capacity of the capacitor canbe expressed as follows:C=Q/VThus, the capacity is equal to the quantity of electricity divided bythe electrical pressure or voltage. The capacity of a capacitor isdependent upon the size and spacing of the conducting plates and thetype of insulating and dielectric medium between the plates.

The dielectric material of a capacitor is one of the essential parts ofthe capacitor. The dielectric material may be a solid, a liquid, a gasor even be in the form of a plasma or vacuum. The simplest form ofcapacitors comprise two electrodes or conducting plates which areseparated by air. In this case, the capacitor includes a gaseousdielectric. It is common practice to identify capacitors in accordancewith the type of dielectric employed in their structure. Accordingly,terms such as mica capacitors, air capacitors, oil capacitors and papercapacitors are commonly used. However, according to the presentinvention, electrochemical capacitors and electrolytic capacitors are ofparticular interest. In particular, for example, an electrolyticcapacitor uses a metallic plate for one of its conducting surfaces,whereas the other conducting surface is typically a chemical compound orelectrolyte. The dielectric employed is typically a thin film of anoxide of the metal which constitutes the one metallic plate used in thestructure. Electrolytic capacitors are divided into two general types,namely, wet electrolytic capacitors and dry electrolytic capacitors.

In order to practice the techniques of the present invention, it hasbeen discovered that matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmasand/or mixtures and/or portions thereof) can be caused, or influenced,to interact and/or react (or be prevented from reacting and/orinteracting) with other matter and/or portions thereof in, a cellreaction system along a desired reaction pathway by applying energy, inthe form of, for example, a spectral energy provider such as a catalyticspectral energy pattern, a catalytic spectral pattern, a spectral energypattern, a spectral energy catalyst, a spectral pattern, a spectralcatalyst, a spectral environmental reaction condition and/orcombinations thereof, which can collectively result in an appliedspectral energy pattern being applied or provided in at least a portionof the cell reaction system. One example of this phenomenon, discussedin greater detail in the “Examples” section later herein, utilizes asodium vapor light as a spectral energy pattern which results inenhanced conductivity in an aqueous solution.

Likewise, matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/ormixtures and/or portions thereof) can be caused, or influenced, tointeract and/or react with other matter and/or portions thereof in, forexample, a conditioning reaction system along a desired reaction pathwayby applying conditioning energy to a conditionable participant, in theform of, for example, a catalytic spectral energy conditioning pattern,a catalytic spectral conditioning pattern, a spectral energyconditioning pattern, a spectral energy conditioning catalyst, aspectral conditioning pattern, a spectral conditioning catalyst, aspectral conditioning environmental reaction condition and/orcombinations thereof, which can collectively result in an appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern being applied to a conditionableparticipant. Specifically, the applied conditioning energy results in aconditioned participant which, when exposed to, and/or activated by, acell reaction system, can cause the cell reaction system to behave in adesirable manner (e.g., the conditioned energy pattern of theconditioned participant favorably interacts with at least oneparticipant in a cell reaction system). One example of this phenomenon,discussed in grater detail in the “Examples” section later herein,utilizes a sodium vapor light as a spectral energy conditioning patternfor conditioning water prior to sodium chloride being dissolved thereinwhich also resulted in enhanced conductivity.

In these cases, interactions and/or reactions may be caused to occurwhen the applied spectral energy pattern (or the applied spectral energyconditioning pattern) results in, for example, some type of modificationto the spectral energy pattern of one or more of the forms of matter inthe cell reaction system. The various forms of matter include reactants;transients; intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts;reaction products; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalystsupport materials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures of componentsthereof. For example, the applied spectral energy provider (i.e., atleast one of spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectralenergy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern;catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and spectralenvironmental reaction conditions) when targeted appropriately to, forexample, a participant and/or component in the cell reaction system, canresult in the generation of, and/or desirable interaction with one ormore participants. Specifically, the applied spectral energy providercan be targeted to achieve very specific desirable results and/orreaction product and/or reaction product at a desired rate and/or alonga desired reaction pathway).

The targeting can occur by a direct resonance approach, (i.e., directresonance targeting), a harmonic resonance approach (i.e., harmonictargeting) and/or a non-harmonic heterodyne resonance approach (i.e.,non-harmonic heterodyne targeting). The spectral energy provider can betargeted to, for example, interact with at least one frequency of anatom or molecule, including, but not limited to, electronic frequencies,vibrational frequencies, rotational frequencies, rotational-vibrationalfrequencies, librational frequencies, translational frequencies,gyrational frequencies, fine splitting frequencies, hyperfine splittingfrequencies, magnetic field induced frequencies, electric field inducedfrequencies, natural oscillating frequencies, and all components and/orportions thereof (discussed in greater detail later herein; and specificexamples being given in Table D). These approaches may result in, forexample, the mimicking of at least one mechanism of action of a physicalcatalyst in a cell reaction system.

Similar concepts also apply to utilizing an applied spectral energyconditioning pattern in a conditioning reaction system. In the casewhere one applied spectral energy conditioning pattern is utilized,interactions and/or reactions may be caused to occur in the conditioningreaction system when the applied spectral energy conditioning patternresults in, for example, some type of modification to the spectralenergy pattern of one or more conditionable participants prior to suchparticipant(s) being involved in, and/or activated by, the cell reactionsystem. The various forms of matter that can be used as a conditionableparticipant include: reactants; physical catalysts; reaction products;promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst support materials;reaction vessels; conditioning reaction vessels and/or mixtures ofcomponents thereof. For example, the applied spectral energyconditioning provider (e.g., at least one of a: spectral energyconditioning catalyst; spectral conditioning catalyst; spectral energyconditioning pattern; spectral conditioning pattern; catalytic spectralenergy conditioning pattern; catalytic spectral conditioning pattern;applied spectral energy conditioning pattern and spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions) when targeted appropriately to, forexample, a conditionable participant and/or component thereof prior tothe conditionable participant, and/or component thereof, becominginvolved in, and/or activated by, the cell reaction system, can resultin the generation of a desirable reaction product, and/or desirableinteraction with one or more participants in the cell reaction system.Specifically, the applied spectral energy conditioning provider can betargeted to a conditionable participant to achieve very specificdesirable results (e.g., a very specific conditioned energy pattern).The desirable conditioned energy pattern can thereafter result in adesirable reaction pathway, a desirable reaction product and/or adesired rate in a cell reaction system, when the conditioned participantbecomes involved in the cell reaction system. Further, the conditionedparticipant may itself comprise both a reactant and a reaction product,whereby, for example, the chemical composition of the conditionedparticipant does not substantially change (if at all) but one or morephysical properties or structures or phases or relationship(s) in one ormore of its energy structure(s) is changed once the conditionedparticipant is involved with, and/or activated by, the cell reactionsystem.

The conditioning targeting can occur by a direct resonance conditioningapproach, (i.e., direct resonance conditioning targeting), a harmonicresonance conditioning approach (i.e., harmonic conditioning targeting),non-harmonic heterodyne conditioning resonance approach (i.e.,non-harmonic heterodyne conditioning targeting). The spectral energyconditioning provider can be targeted to, for example, interact with theconditionable participant by interacting with at least one frequency ofan atom or molecule, including, but not limited to, electronicfrequencies, vibrational frequencies, rotational frequencies,rotational-vibrational frequencies, fine splitting frequencies,hyperfine splitting frequencies, magnetic field induced frequencies,electric field induced frequencies, natural oscillating frequencies, andall components and/or portions thereof (discussed in greater detaillater herein). Some examples of known sources of spectral energyconditioning providers include, but are not limited to, ELF sources, VLFsources, radio sources, microwave sources, infrared sources, visiblelight sources, ultraviolet sources, x-ray sources and gamma ray sources.

The following Table D lists examples of various possible sources ofspectral energy patterns and of spectral energy conditioning patterns.

TABLE D ELF, VLF, and Radio Sources Electron tubes (e.g. oscillatorssuch as regenerative, Meissner, Harley, Colpitts, Ultraudion, Tuned-GridTuned Plate, Crystal, Dynatron, Transitron, Beat-frequency, R-CTransitron, Phase-Shift, Multivibrator, Inverse-Feedback, Sweep-Circuit,Thyratron Sweep) Glow tube Thyratron Electron-ray tube Cathode-ray tubePhototube Ballast tube Hot body Magnetron Klystron Crystals (e.g.,microprocessor, piezoelectric, quartz, quartz strip, SAW resonator,semiconductor) Oscillators (e.g., crystal, digitally compensatedcrystal, hybrid, IC, microcomputer compensated crystal, oven controlledcrystal OCXO, positive emitter-coupled logic, pulse, RC, RF, RFXO, SAW,sinusoidal, square wave, temperature compensated TCXO, trigger coherent,VHF/UHF, voltage controlled crystal VCXO, voltage controlled VCO,dielectric resonator DRO) Microwave Sources Hot body Spark dischargeElectronic tubes (e.g. triode) Klystrons Klystron plus multipliersMagnetrons Magnetron harmonics Traveling-wave and backward wave tubesSpark oscillator Mass oscillator Vacuum tube Multipliers Microwave tubeMicrowave solid-state device (e.g., transistors, bipolar transistors,field-effect transistors, transferred electron (Gunn) devices, avalanchediodes, tunnel diodes) Maser Oscillators (e.g., crystal, digitallycompensated crystal, hybrid, IC, microcomputer compensated crystal, ovencontrolled crystal OCXO, positive emitter- coupled logic, pulse, RC, RF,RFXO, SAW, sinusoidal, square wave, temperature compensated TCXO,trigger coherent, VHF/UHF, voltage controlled crystal VCXO, voltagecontrolled VCO, dielectric resonator DRO) Infrared Sources Filaments(e.g. Nernst, refractory, Globar) Gas mantle Lamp (e.g. mercury, neon)Hot body Infrared light emitting diode ILED, arrays Visible LightSources Flame Electric arc Spark electrode Gaseous discharge (e.g.sodium, mercury) Planar Gas discharge Plasma Hot body Filament,Incandescence Laser, laser diodes (e.g. multiple quantum well types,double heterostructured) Lamps (e.g., arc, cold cathode, fluorescent,electroluminescent, fluorescent, high intensity discharge, hot cathode,incandescent, mercury, neon, tungsten- halogen, deuterium, tritium,hollow cathode, xenon, high pressure, photoionization, zinc)Light-emitting diode LED, LED arrays Organic Light-emitting diode OLED(e.g. small molecule, polymer) Luminescence (e.g., electro-, chemi-)Charge coupled devices CCD Cathode ray tube CRT Cold cathode Fieldemission Liquid crystal LCD Liquid crystal on silicon LcoS LowTemperature polycrystalline silicon LTPS Metal-Insulated-Metal (MIM)Active Matrix Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Chip on Glass COG TwistNematic TN Super Twist Nematic STN Thin film transistor TNT Fluorescence(e.g. vacuum, chemi-) Ultraviolet Sources Spark discharge Arc dischargeHot body Lamps (e.g. gaseous discharge, mercury vapor, neon,fluorescence, mercury- xenon) Light emitting diode LED, LED arrays LaserX-ray Sources Atomic inner shell Positron-electron annihilation Electronimpact on a solid Spark discharge Hot body Tubes (e.g. gas, high vacuum)γ-ray Sources Radioactive nuclei Hot body

In some cases, desirable results in a cell reaction system may beachieved by utilizing a single applied spectral energy pattern targetedto a single participant; while in other cases, more than one appliedspectral energy pattern may be targeted to a single participant ormultiple participants, by, for example, multiple approaches in a singlecell reaction system. Specifically, combinations of direct resonancetargeting, harmonic targeting and non-harmonic heterodyne targeting,which can be made to interact with one or more frequencies occurring inatoms and/or molecules, could be used sequentially or substantiallycontinuously. Further, in certain cases, the spectral energy providertargeting may result in various interactions at predominantly the upperenergy levels of one or more of the various forms of matter present in acell reaction system.

Further, desirable results may be achieved once a conditionedparticipant is exposed to (e.g., activated in) a cell reaction systemand/or the conditioned participant may enhance certain reaction pathwaysand/or reaction rates (e.g., kinetics of a reaction may be increased ordecreased; or reaction products may be altered, increased or decreased).For example, in some cases, desirable results may be achieved byutilizing a single applied spectral energy conditioning pattern targetedto a single conditionable participant; while in other cases, more thanone applied spectral energy conditioning pattern may be targeted to asingle conditionable participant or to multiple conditionableparticipants, by, for example, multiple approaches. Specifically,combinations of direct resonance conditioning targeting, harmonicconditioning targeting and non-harmonic heterodyne conditioningtargeting, which can be made to interact with one or more frequenciesoccurring in atoms and/or molecules of a conditionable participant,could be used sequentially or substantially continuously to createdesirable conditioned participants. Further, in certain cases, thespectral energy conditioning provider targeting may result in variousinteractions at predominantly the upper energy levels of one or more ofthe various forms of matter present as a conditionable participant.

Still further, numerous combinations of the aforementioned appliedspectral energy patterns and applied spectral energy conditioningpatterns could be used in a cell reaction system to target participantsand/or conditionable participants. For example, applied spectral energypatterns could be directed to one or more participants; and/or appliedspectral energy conditioning patterns could be directed to one or moreconditionable participants. In some cell reaction systems, a spectralenergy pattern and a spectral energy conditioning pattern may besubstantially similar to each other (e.g., exactly the same or at leastcomprising similar portions of the electromagnetic spectrum) or verydifferent from each other (e.g., comprising similar or very differentportions of the electromagnetic spectrum). The combination of one ormore spectral energy patterns with one or more spectral energyconditioning patterns could have significant implications for control ofvarious reaction pathways and/or reaction rates in a cell reactionsystem.

The invention further recognizes and explains that various environmentalreaction conditions are capable of influencing reaction pathways in acell reaction system when using a spectral energy catalyst such as aspectral catalyst. The invention teaches specific methods forcontrolling various environmental reaction conditions in order toachieve desirable results in a reaction (e.g., desirable reactionproduct(s) in one or more desirable reaction pathway(s)) and/orinteractions. The invention further discloses an applied spectral energyapproach which permits the simulation, at least partially, of desirableenvironmental reaction conditions by the application of at least one,for example, spectral environmental reaction conditions. Thus,environmental reaction conditions can be controlled and used incombination with at least one spectral energy pattern to achieve adesired reaction pathway. Alternatively, traditionally utilizedenvironmental reaction conditions can be modified in a desirable manner(e.g., application of a reduced temperature and/or reduced pressure) bysupplementing and/or replacing the traditional environmental reactioncondition(s) with at least one spectral environmental reactioncondition.

Similarly, the invention further recognizes and explains that variousconditioning environmental reaction conditions are capable ofinfluencing the resultant energy pattern of a conditionable participant,which, when such conditioned participant becomes involved with, and/oractivated in, a cell reaction system, can influence reaction pathways ina cell reaction system. The invention teaches specific methods forcontrolling various conditioning environmental reaction conditions inorder to achieve desirable conditioning of at least one conditionableparticipant which in turn can achieve desirable results (e.g., desirablereaction product(s) and/or one or more desirable reaction pathway(s)and/or desirable interactions and/or desirable reaction raters) in acell reaction system. The invention further discloses an appliedspectral energy conditioning approach which permits the simulation, atleast partially, of desirable environmental reaction conditions by theapplication of at least one, for example, spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction condition. Thus, conditioning environmentalreaction conditions can be controlled and used in combination with atleast one spectral energy conditioning pattern to achieve a desiredconditioned energy pattern in a conditioned participant. Alternatively,traditionally utilized environmental reaction conditions can be modifiedin a desirable manner (e.g., application of a reduced temperature and/orreduced pressure) by supplementing and/or replacing the traditionalenvironmental reaction condition(s) with at least one spectralconditioning environmental reaction condition.

The invention also provides a method for determining desirable physicalcatalysts (i.e., comprising previously known materials or materials notpreviously known to function as a physical catalyst which can beutilized in a cell reaction system to achieve a desired reaction pathwayand/or desired reaction rate. In this regard, the invention may be ableto provide a recipe for a physical and/or spectral catalyst for aparticular reaction in a cell reaction system where no physical catalystpreviously existed. In this embodiment of the invention, spectral energypatterns are determined or calculated by the techniques of the inventionand corresponding physical catalysts can be supplied or manufactured andthereafter included in the cell reaction system to generate thecalculated required spectral energy patterns. In certain cases, one ormore existing physical species could be used or combined in a suitablemanner, if a single physical species was deemed to be insufficient, toobtain the appropriate calculated spectral energy pattern to achieve adesired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate. Such catalystscan be used alone, in combination with other physical catalysts,spectral energy catalysts, controlled environmental reaction conditionsand/or spectral environmental reaction conditions to achieve a desiredresultant energy pattern and consequent reaction pathway and/or desiredreaction rate.

Similarly, the invention also provides a method for determiningdesirable physical catalysts (e.g., comprising previously knownmaterials or materials not previously known to function as a physicalcatalyst) which can be utilized in a cell reaction system byappropriately conditioning at least one conditionable participant toachieve a desired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate and/ordesired reaction product when the conditioned participant becomesinvolved with (e.g., is added to or activated in) the cell reactionsystem. In this regard, the invention may be able to provide a recipefor a physical and/or spectral catalyst for a particular cell reactionsystem where no physical catalyst previously existed. In this embodimentof the invention, spectral energy conditioning patterns are determinedor calculated by the techniques of the invention and correspondingconditionable participants can be supplied or manufactured andthereafter included in the conditioning reaction system to generate thecalculated required spectral energy patterns in a conditionedparticipant. In certain cases, one or more existing physical species ofa conditionable participant could be used or combined in a suitablemanner, if a single physical species was deemed to be insufficient, toobtain the appropriate calculated spectral energy conditioned pattern toachieve a desired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate. Suchconditioned participants, can be used alone, in combination with otherphysical catalysts, spectral energy catalysts, spectral energycatalysts, controlled environmental reaction conditions, spectralenvironmental reaction conditions and/or spectral environmental reactionconditions to achieve a desired reaction pathway and/or desired reactionrate. Thus, once a desired conditioned energy pattern is achieved in aconditioned participant, the conditioned participant becomes involvedwith, and/or activated in, the cell reaction system.

The invention discloses many different permutations of one importanttheme of the invention, namely, that when frequencies of participants ina cell reaction system match, or can be made to match, such as, byconditioning at least one conditionable participant, energy transfersbetween the components, participants or conditioned participants in thecell reaction system. It should be understood that these many differentpermutations can be used alone to achieve desirable results (e.g.,desired reaction pathways and/or a desired reaction rates and/or desiredreaction products) or can be used in a limitless combination ofpermutations, to achieve desired results (e.g., desired reactionpathways, desired reaction products and/or desired reaction rates).However, in a first preferred embodiment of the invention, so long as aparticipant, or conditioned participant, has one or more of itsfrequencies that match with at least one frequency of at least one otherparticipant in a cell reaction system (e.g., spectral patterns overlap),energy can be transferred. If energy is transferred in this targetedmanner, desirable interactions, reactions, and/or energy dynamics canresult in the cell reaction system, such as increased energy amplitudein key components of one or more reactions in the holoreaction system.Further, the conditioned participant may itself comprise both a reactantand a reaction product, whereby, for example, the chemical compositionof the conditioned participant does not substantially change (if at all)but one or more physical properties or structures or phases is changedonce the conditioned participant is involved with, and/or activated by,the cell reaction system.

Further, the same targeted frequency or energy can be used withdifferent power amplitudes, in the same holoreaction system, to achievedramatically different results. For example, the vibrational frequencyof a liquid solvent may be input at low power amplitudes to improve thesolvent properties of the liquid without causing any substantial changein the chemical composition of the liquid. At higher power levels, thesame vibrational frequency can be used to dissociate the liquid solvent,thereby changing its chemical composition. Thus, there is a continuum ofeffects that can be obtained with a single targeted frequency, rangingfrom changes in the energy dynamics of a participant, to changes in theactual chemical or physical structure of a participant.

Moreover, the concept of frequencies matching can also be used in thereverse. Specifically, if a reaction in a cell reaction system isoccurring because frequencies match, the reaction can be slowed orstopped by causing the frequencies to no longer match or at least matchto a lesser degree. In this regard, one or more cell reaction systemcomponents (e.g., environmental reaction condition, spectralenvironmental reaction condition and/or an applied spectral energypattern) can be modified and/or applied so as to minimize, reduce oreliminate frequencies from matching. This also permits reactions to bestarted and stopped with ease providing for novel control in a myriad ofreactions in a cell reaction system including preventing the formationof certain species, controlling the amount of product formed in a cellreaction system, etc. Further, if a source of, for example,electromagnetic radiation includes a somewhat larger spectrum ofwavelengths or frequencies (i.e., energies) than those which are neededto optimize (or prevent) a particular reaction in a cell reactionsystem, then some of the unnecessary (or undesirable) wavelengths can beprevented from coming into contact with the cell reaction system (e.g.,can be blocked, reflected, absorbed, etc.) by an appropriate filtering,absorbing and/or reflecting technique as discussed in greater detaillater herein.

Moreover, the concept of frequencies matching can also be used in thereverse for conditionable participants. Specifically, if a reaction isoccurring because frequencies match, the reaction can be slowed orstopped by causing the frequencies to no longer match or at least matchto a lesser degree. In this regard, one or more cell reaction systemcomponents (e.g., environmental reaction condition, spectralenvironmental reaction condition and/or an applied spectral energypattern) can be modified by introducing a conditionable participant,once conditioned, so as to minimize, reduce or eliminate frequenciesfrom matching in the cell reaction system. This also permits reactionsto be started and stopped with ease providing for novel control in amyriad of reactions in a cell reaction system including preventing theformation of certain species, controlling the amount of product formedin a cell reaction system, etc. Further, if a source of, for exampleelectromagnetic radiation includes a somewhat larger spectrum ofwavelengths or frequencies (i.e., energies) than those which are neededto optimize (or prevent) a particular reaction in a cell reactionsystem, then some of the unnecessary (or undesirable) wavelengths can beprevented from coming into contact with the cell reaction system (e.g.,can be blocked, reflected, absorbed, etc.) by an appropriate filtering,absorbing and/or reflecting technique as discussed in greater detaillater herein.

It should also be apparent that various conditionable participants, onceconditioned, can be used in combination with various participants and/orspectral energy providers in a cell reaction system to control numerousreaction pathways.

Further, a conditionable participant may be conditioned by removing atleast a portion of its spectral pattern prior to the conditionableparticipant being introduced into a cell reaction system.

To simplify the disclosure and understanding of the invention, specificcategories or sections have been created in the “Summary of theInvention” and in the “Detailed Description of the PreferredEmbodiments”. However, it should be understood that these categories arenot mutually exclusive and that some overlap exists. Accordingly, theseartificially created sections should not be used in an effort to limitthe scope of the invention defined in the appended claims.

Further, in the following Sections, attempts have been made to simplifydiscussions and reduce the overall length of this disclosure. Forexample, in many instances, “participants” in a cell reaction system orholoreaction system are exclusively referred to. However, it should beunderstood that “conditionable participants” could also be separatelyaddressed in the disclosure, even though not always expressly referredto herein. Thus, when the various general mechanisms of the inventionare referred to herein, even if reference is made directly or indirectlyto “participants” only, it should be understood that the discussion alsoapplies to “conditionable participants” with similar relevancy. Effortshave been made throughout the disclosure to refer expressly to all ofthe novel phenomenon associated with conditionable participants onlywhen required for clarification purposes.

I. Wave Energies

In general, thermal energy has traditionally been used to drive chemicalreactions by applying heat and increasing the temperature of a reactionsystem. The addition of heat increases the kinetic (motion) energy ofthe chemical reactants. It has been believed that a reactant with morekinetic energy moves faster and farther, and is more likely to take partin a chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise, by stirring andmoving the chemicals, increases their kinetic energy and thus theirreactivity. The addition of mechanical energy often increasestemperature, by increasing kinetic energy.

Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanicalwaves. Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increasethe kinetic energy of chemical reactants, and can also elevate theirtemperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM) energy consists of waves ofelectric and magnetic fields. EM energy may also increase the kineticenergy and heat in reaction systems. It also may energize electronicorbitals or vibrational motion in some reactions.

Both acoustic and electromagnetic energy consist of waves. Energy wavesand frequency have some interesting properties, and may be combined insome interesting ways. The manner in which wave energy transfers andcombines, depends largely on the frequency. For example, when two wavesof energy, each having the same amplitude, but one at a frequency of 400Hz and the other at 100 Hz are caused to interact, the waves willcombine and their frequencies will add, to produce a new frequency of500 Hz (i.e., the “sum” frequency). The frequency of the waves will alsosubtract when they combine to produce a frequency of 300 Hz (i.e., the“difference” frequency). All wave energies typically add and subtract inthis manner, and such adding and subtracting is referred to asheterodyning. Common results of heterodyning are familiar to most asharmonics in music. The importance of heterodyning will be discussed ingreater detail later herein.

Another concept important to the invention is wave interactions orinterference. In particular, wave energies are known to interactconstructively and destructively. These phenomena are important indetermining the applied spectral energy pattern. FIGS. 1 a-1 c show twodifferent incident sine waves 1 (FIG. 1 a) and 2 (FIG. 1 b) whichcorrespond to two different spectral energy patterns having twodifferent wavelengths λ₁ and λ₂ (and thus different frequencies) whichcould be applied to a cell reaction system. Assume arguendo that theenergy pattern of FIG. 1 a corresponds to an electromagnetic spectralpattern (or an electromagnetic spectral conditioning pattern) and thatFIG. 1 b corresponds to one spectral environmental reaction condition(or a spectral conditioning environmental reaction condition). Each ofthe sine waves 1 and 2 has a different differential equation whichdescribes its individual motion. However, when the sine waves arecombined into the resultant additive wave 1+2 (FIG. 1 c), the resultingcomplex differential equation, which describes the totality of thecombined energies (i.e., the applied spectral energy pattern; or theapplied spectral energy conditioning pattern) actually results incertain of the input energies being high (i.e., constructiveinterference shown by a higher amplitude) at certain points in time, aswell as being low (i.e., destructive interference shown by a loweramplitude) at certain points in time.

Specifically, the portions “X” represent areas where the electromagneticspectral pattern of wave 1 has constructively interfered with thespectral environmental reaction condition wave 2, whereas the portions“Y” represent areas where the two waves 1 and 2 have destructivelyinterfered. Depending upon whether the portions “X” corresponds todesirable or undesirable wavelengths, frequencies or energies (e.g.,causing the applied spectral energy pattern (or the applied spectralenergy conditioning pattern) to have positive or negative interactionswith, for example, one or more participants and/or components in thecell reaction system), then the portions “X” could enhance a positiveeffect in the cell reaction system or could enhance a negative effect inthe cell reaction system. Similarly, depending on whether the portions“Y” correspond to desirable or undesirable wavelengths, frequencies, orenergies, then the portions “Y” may correspond to the effective loss ofeither a positive or negative effect.

Further, if a source of, for example, electromagnetic radiation includesa somewhat larger spectrum of wavelengths or frequencies (i.e.,energies) than those which are needed to optimize a particular reaction,then some of the unnecessary (or undesirable) wavelengths can beprevented from coming into contact with the cell reaction system (e.g.,blocked, reflected, absorbed, etc.). Accordingly in the simplifiedexample discussed immediately above, by permitting only desirablewavelengths λ₁ to interact in a cell reaction system (e.g., filteringout certain wavelengths or frequencies of a broader spectrumelectromagnetic emitter) the possibilities of negative effects resultingfrom the combination of waves 1 (FIG. 1 a) and 2 (FIG. 1 b) would beminimized or eliminated. In this regard, it is noted that in practicemany desirable incident wavelengths can be made to be incident on atleast a portion of a cell reaction system. Moreover, it should also beclear that positive or desirable effects include, but are not limitedto, those effects resulting from an interaction (e.g., heterodyne,resonance, additive wave, subtractive wave, constructive or destructiveinterference) between a wavelength or frequency of incident light and awavelength (e.g., atomic and/or molecular, etc.), frequency or property(e.g., Stark effects, Zeeman effects, etc.) inherent to the cellreaction system itself. Thus, by maximizing the desirable wavelengths(or minimizing undesirable wavelengths), cell reaction systemefficiencies never before known can be achieved. Alternatively stated,certain destructive interference effects resulting from the combinationsof different energies, frequencies and/or wavelengths can reduce certaindesirable results in a cell reaction system. The present inventionattempts to mask or screen (e.g., filter) as many of such undesirableenergies (or wavelengths) as possible (e.g., when a somewhat largerspectrum of wavelengths is available to be incident on a cell reactionsystem) from becoming incident on a cell reaction system and thus strivefor, for example, the synergistic results that can occur due to, forexample, desirable constructive interference effects between theincident wavelengths of, for example, electromagnetic energy.

It should be clear from this particular analysis that constructiveinterferences (i.e., the points “X”) could, for example, maximize bothpositive and negative effects in a cell reaction system. Accordingly,this simplified example shows that by combining, for example, certainfrequencies from a spectral pattern (or a spectral conditioning pattern)with one or more other frequencies from, for example, at least onespectral environmental reaction condition (or at least one spectralenvironmental conditioning reaction condition), that the appliedspectral energy pattern (or applied spectral energy conditioningpattern) that is actually applied to the cell reaction system can be acombination of constructive and destructive interference(s). The degreeof interference can also depend on the relative phases of the waves.Accordingly, these factors should also be taken into account whenchoosing appropriate spectral energy patterns (or applied spectralenergy conditioning patterns) that are to be applied to a cell reactionsystem. In this regard, it is noted that in practice many desirableincident wavelengths can be applied to a cell reaction system orundesirable incident wavelengths removed from a source which is incidentupon at least a portion of a cell reaction). Moreover, it should also beclear that wave interaction effects include, but are not limited to,heterodyning, direct resonance, indirect resonance, additive waves,subtractive waves, constructive or destructive interference, etc.Further, as discussed in detail later herein, additional effects such aselectric effects and/or magnetic field effects can also influencespectral energy patterns or spectral energy conditioning patterns (e.g.,spectral patterns or spectral conditioning patterns).

II. Spectral Catalysts Spectral Conditioning Catalysts and Spectroscopy

A wide variety of reactions can be advantageously affected and directedwith the assistance of a spectral energy catalyst (or spectral energyconditioning catalyst) having a specific spectral energy pattern (e.g.,spectral pattern or electromagnetic pattern) which transfers targetedenergy to initiate, control and/or promote desirable reaction pathways(e.g., desirable reaction pathways in a single or multiple componentcell reaction system) and/or desirable reaction rates within a cellreaction system. This section discusses spectral catalysts (and spectralconditioning catalysts) in more detail and explains various techniquesfor using spectral catalysts (and/or spectral conditioning catalysts) invarious cell reaction systems (and holoreaction systems). For example, aspectral catalyst can be used in a cell reaction system to replace andprovide the additional energy normally supplied by a physical catalyst.The spectral catalyst can actually mimic or copy the mechanisms ofaction of a physical catalyst. The spectral catalyst can act as both apositive catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction or as a negativecatalyst or poison to decrease the rate of reaction. Furthermore, thespectral catalyst can augment a physical catalyst by utilizing both aphysical catalyst and a spectral catalyst to achieve, for example adesired reaction pathway in a cell reaction system. The spectralcatalyst can improve the activity of a physical chemical catalyst. Also,the spectral catalyst can partially replace a specific quantity oramount of the physical catalyst, thereby reducing and/or eliminatingmany of the difficulties associated with, various processingdifficulties in numerous reactions.

Moreover, a conditionable participant can be conditioned by a spectralconditioning catalyst to form a conditioned participant which canthereafter be used in a cell reaction system, alone or in combinationwith a spectral catalyst. The spectral conditioning catalyst canenergize a conditionable participant to result in a conditionedparticipant which can likewise, for example, replace, augment orotherwise provide additional energy normally provided by a physicalcatalyst in a cell reaction system, as discussed immediately above withregard to a spectral catalyst.

Further, in the present invention, the spectral energy catalyst providestargeted energy (e.g., electromagnetic radiation comprising a specificfrequency or combination of frequencies), in a sufficient amount for asufficient duration to initiate and/or promote and/or direct a chemicalreaction (e.g., follow a particular reaction pathway). The totalcombination of targeted energy applied at any point in time to the cellreaction system is referred to as the applied spectral energy pattern.The applied spectral energy pattern may be comprised of a singlespectral catalyst, multiple spectral catalysts and/or other spectralenergy catalysts as well. With the absorption of targeted energy into acell reaction system (e.g., electromagnetic energy from a spectralcatalyst), a reactant may be caused to proceed through one or severalreaction pathways including: energy transfer which can, for example,excite electrons to higher energy states for initiation of chemicalreaction, by causing frequencies to match; ionize or dissociatereactants which may participate in a chemical reaction; stabilizereaction products; energize and/or stabilize intermediates and/ortransients and/or activated complexes that participate in a cellreaction pathway; cause one or more components in a cell reaction systemto have spectral patterns which at least partially overlap; alteredenergy dynamics of one or more components causing them to have alteredproperties and/or altered resonant exchange of energy, within theholoreaction system.

Moreover, in the present invention, the spectral energy conditioningcatalyst provides targeted conditioning energy (e.g., electromagneticradiation comprising a specific frequency or combination offrequencies), in a sufficient amount for a sufficient duration tocondition a conditionable participant to form a conditioned participantand to permit the conditioned participant to initiate and/or promoteand/or direct a chemical reaction (e.g., follow a particular reactionpathway) once the conditioned participant is initiated or activated inthe cell reaction system. The total combination of targeted conditioningenergy applied at any point in time to the conditioning reaction systemis referred to as the applied spectral energy conditioning pattern. Theapplied spectral energy conditioning pattern may be comprised of asingle spectral conditioning catalyst, multiple spectral conditioningcatalysts and/or other spectral energy conditioning catalysts. With theabsorption of targeted conditioning energy into a conditioning reactionsystem (e.g., electromagnetic energy from a spectral conditioningcatalyst), a conditioned participant may cause one or more reactants ina cell reaction system to proceed through one or several reactionpathways including: energy transfer which can for example, exciteelectrons to higher energy states for initiation of chemical reaction,by causing frequencies to match; ionize or dissociate reactants whichmay participate in a chemical reaction; stabilize reaction products;energize and/or stabilize intermediates and/or transients and/oractivated complexes that participate in a reaction pathway; cause one ormore components in a cell reaction system to have spectral patternswhich at least partially overlap; alter the energy dynamics of acomponent to affect its properties; and/or alter the resonant exchangeof energy within a holoreaction system.

For example, in a simple cell reaction system, if a chemical reactionprovides for at least one reactant “A” to be converted into at least onereaction product “B”, a physical catalyst “C” (or a conditionedparticipant “C”) may be utilized. In contrast, a portion of thecatalytic spectral energy pattern (e.g., in this section the catalyticspectral pattern) of the physical catalyst “C” may be applied in theform of, for example, an electromagnetic beam (as discussed elsewhereherein) to catalyze the cell reaction.CA→BSubstances A and B=unknown frequencies, and C=30 Hz;Therefore, Substance A+30 HZ→Substance B.

In the present invention, for example, the spectral pattern (e.g.,electromagnetic spectral pattern) of the physical catalyst “C” can bedetermined by known methods of spectroscopy. Utilizing spectroscopicinstrumentation, the spectral pattern of the physical catalyst ispreferably determined under conditions approximating those occurring inthe cell reaction system using the physical catalyst (e.g., spectralenergy patterns as well as spectral patterns can be influenced byenvironmental reaction conditions, as discussed later herein).

Spectroscopy in general deals with the interaction of wave energies withmatter. Spectroscopy is a process in which, typically, the energydifferences between allowed states of any system are measured bydetermining the frequencies of the corresponding electromagnetic energywhich is either being absorbed or emitted. When photons interact with,for example, atoms or molecules, changes in the properties of atoms andmolecules are observed.

Atoms and molecules are associated with several different types ofmotion. The entire molecule rotates, the bonds vibrate, and even theelectrons move, albeit so rapidly that electron density distributionshave historically been the primary focus of the prior art. Each of thesekinds of motion is quantified. That is, the atom, molecule or ion canexist only in distinct states that correspond to discrete energyamounts. The energy difference between the different quantum statesdepends on the type of motion involved. Thus, the frequency of energyrequired to bring about a transition is different for the differenttypes of motion. That is, each type of motion corresponds to theabsorption of energy in different regions of the electromagneticspectrum and different spectroscopic instrumentation may be required foreach spectral region. The total motion energy of an atom or molecule maybe considered to be at least the sum of its electronic, vibrational androtational energies.

In both emission and absorption spectra, the relation between the energychange in the atom or molecule and the frequency of the electromagneticenergy emitted or absorbed is given by the so-called Bohr frequencycondition:ΔE=hvwhere h is Planck's constant; v is the frequency; and ΔE, is thedifference of energies in the final and initial states.

Electronic spectra are the result of electrons moving from oneelectronic energy level to another in an atom, molecule or ion. Amolecular physical catalyst's spectral pattern includes not onlyelectronic energy transitions but also may involve transitions betweenrotational and vibrational energy levels. As a result, the spectra ofmolecules are much more complicated than those of atoms. The mainchanges observed in the atoms or molecules after interaction withphotons include excitation, ionization and/or rupture of chemical bonds,all of which may be measured and quantified by spectroscopic methodsincluding emission or absorption spectroscopy which give the sameinformation about energy level separation.

In emission spectroscopy, when an atom or molecule is subjected to aflame or an electric discharge, such atoms or molecules may absorbenergy and become “excited.” On their return to their “normal” statethey may emit radiation. Such an emission is the result of a transitionof the atom or molecule from a high energy or “excited” state to one oflower state. The energy lost in the transition is emitted in the form ofelectromagnetic energy. “Excited” atoms usually produce line spectrawhile “excited” molecules tend to produce band spectra.

In absorption spectroscopy, the absorption of nearly monochromaticincident radiation is monitored as it is swept over a range offrequencies. During the absorption process the atoms or molecules passfrom a state of low energy to one of high energy. Energy changesproduced by electromagnetic energy absorption occur only in integralmultiples of a unit amount of energy called a quantum, which ischaracteristic of each absorbing species. Absorption spectra may beclassified into four types: rotational; rotation-vibration; vibrational;and electronic.

The rotational spectrum of a molecule is associated with changes whichoccur in the rotational states of the molecule. The energies of therotational states differ only by a relatively small amount, and hence,the frequency which is necessary to effect a change in the rotationallevels is very low and the wavelength of electromagnetic energy is verylarge. The energy spacing of molecular rotational states depends on bonddistances and angles. Pure rotational spectra are observed in the farinfrared and microwave and radio regions (See Table 1).

Rotation-vibrational spectra are associated with transitions in whichthe vibrational states of the molecule are altered and may beaccompanied by changes in rotational states. Absorption occurs at higherfrequencies or shorter wavelength and usually occurs in the middle ofthe infrared region (See Table 1).

Vibrational spectra from different vibrational energy levels occurbecause of motion of bonds. A stretching vibration involves a change inthe interatomic distance along the axis of the bond between two atoms.Bending vibrations are characterized by a change in the angle betweentwo bonds. The vibrational spectra of a molecule are typically in thenear-infrared range. It should be understood that the term vibrationalspectra means all manner of bond motion spectra including, but notlimited to, stretching, bending, librational, translational, torsional,etc.

Electronic spectra are from transitions between electronic states foratoms and molecules and are accompanied by simultaneous changes in therotational and vibrational states in molecules. Relatively large energydifferences are involved, and hence absorption occurs at rather largefrequencies or relatively short wavelengths. Different electronic statesof atoms or molecules correspond to energies in the infrared,ultraviolet-visible or x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum (seeTable 1).

It should be understood that not all molecules absorb and emitelectromagnetic energy at the same frequencies. For example, materialswith color centers may absorb electromagnetic waves at one frequency,and emit them at a different frequency.

TABLE 1 Approximate Boundaries Region Name Energy, J WavelengthFrequency, Hz X-ray   2 × 10⁻¹⁴-2 × 10⁻¹⁷ 10 −2-10 nm   3 × 10¹⁹-3 ×10¹⁶ Vacuum Ultraviolet   2 × 10⁻¹⁷-9.9 × 10⁻¹⁹ 10-200 nm   3 × 10¹⁶-1.5× 10¹⁵ Near ultraviolet 9.9 × 10⁻¹⁹-5 × 10⁻¹⁹ 200-400 nm 1.5 × 10¹⁵-7.5× 10¹⁴ Visible   5 × 10⁻¹⁹-2.5 × 10⁻¹⁹ 400-800 nm 7.5 × 10¹⁴-3.8 × 10¹⁴Near Infrared 2.5 × 10⁻¹⁹-6.6 × 10⁻²⁰ 0.8-2.5 um 3.8 × 10¹⁴-1 × 10¹⁴Fundamental 6.6 × 10⁻²⁰-4 × 10⁻²¹ 2.5-50 um   1 × 10¹⁴-6 × 10¹² InfraredFar infrared   4 × 10⁻²¹-6.6 × 10⁻²² 50-300 um   6 × 10¹²-1 × 10¹²Microwave 6.6 × 10⁻²²-4 × 10⁻²⁵ 0.3 mm-0.5 m   1 × 10¹²-6 × 10⁸Radiowave   4 × 10⁻²⁵-6.6 × 10⁻³⁴ 0.5-300 × 10⁶ m   6 × 10⁸-1

Electromagnetic radiation as a form of energy can be absorbed oremitted, and therefore many different types of electromagneticspectroscopy may be used in the present invention to determine a desiredspectral pattern of a spectral catalyst (e.g., a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) including, but not limited to, x-ray, ultraviolet,infrared, microwave, atomic absorption, flame emissions, atomicemissions, inductively coupled plasma, DC argon plasma, arc-sourceemission, spark-source emission, high-resolution laser, radio, Raman andthe like.

In order to study the electronic transitions, the material to be studiedmay need to be heated to a high temperature, such as in a flame, wherethe molecules are atomized and excited. Another very effective way ofatomizing gases is the use of gaseous discharges. When a gas is placedbetween charged electrodes, causing an electrical field, electrons areliberated from the electrodes and from the gas atoms themselves and mayform a plasma or plasma-like conditions. These electrons will collidewith the gas atoms which will be atomized, excited or ionized. By usinghigh frequency fields, it is possible to induce gaseous dischargeswithout using electrodes. By varying the field strength, the excitationenergy can be varied. In the case of a solid material, excitation byelectrical spark or arc can be used. In the spark or arc, the materialto be analyzed is evaporated and the atoms are excited.

The basic scheme of an emission spectrophotometer includes a purifiedsilica cell containing the sample which is to be excited. The radiationof the sample passes through a slit and is separated into a spectrum bymeans of a dispersion element. The spectral pattern can be detected on ascreen, photographic film or by a detector.

Typically, an atom will most strongly absorb electromagnetic energy atthe same frequencies it emits. Measurements of absorption are often madeso that electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from a source passesthrough a wavelength-limiting device, and impinges upon the physicalcatalyst sample that is held in a cell. When a beam of white lightpasses through a material, selected frequencies from the beam areabsorbed. The electromagnetic radiation that is not absorbed by thephysical catalyst passes through the cell and strikes a detector. Whenthe remaining beam is spread out in a spectrum, the frequencies thatwere absorbed show up as dark lines in the otherwise continuousspectrum. The position of these dark lines correspond exactly to thepositions of lines in an emission spectrum of the same molecule or atom.Both emission and absorption spectrophotometers are available throughregular commercial channels.

In 1885, Balmer discovered that hydrogen vibrates and produces energy atfrequencies in the visible light region of the electromagnetic spectrumwhich can be expressed by a simple formula:1/λ=R(½²−1/m ²)when λ is the wavelength of the light, R is Rydberg's constant and m isan integer greater than or equal to 3 (e.g., 3, 4, or 5, etc.).Subsequently, Rydberg discovered that this equation could be adapted toresult in all the wavelengths in the hydrogen spectrum by changing the½² to 1/n², as in,1/λ=R(1/n ²−1/m ²)where n is an integer≧1, and m is an integer≧n+1. Thus, for everydifferent number n, the result is a series of numbers for wavelength,and the names of various scientists were assigned to each such serieswhich resulted. For instance, when n=2 and m≧3, the energy is in thevisible light spectrum and the series is referred to as the Balmerseries. The Lyman series is in the ultraviolet spectrum with n=1, andthe Paschen series is in the infrared spectrum with n=3.

In the prior art, energy level diagrams were the primary means used todescribe energy levels in the hydrogen atom (see FIGS. 7 a and 7 b).

After determining the electromagnetic spectral pattern of a desiredcatalyst (e.g., a physical catalyst), the catalytic spectral pattern maybe duplicated, at least partially, and applied to the cell reactionsystem. Any generator of one or more frequencies within an acceptableapproximate range of, for example, frequencies of electromagneticradiation may be used in the present invention. When duplicating one ormore frequencies of, for example, a spectral pattern (or a spectralconditioning pattern), it is not necessary to duplicate the frequencyexactly. For instance, the effect achieved by a frequency of 1,000 THz,can also be achieved by a frequency very close to it, such as 1,001 or999 THz. Thus, there will be a range above and below each exactfrequency which will also catalyze a reaction. Specifically, FIG. 12shows a typical bell-curve “B” distribution of frequencies around thedesired frequency f_(o), wherein desirable frequencies can be appliedwhich do not correspond exactly to f_(o), but are close enough to thefrequency f_(o) to achieve a desired effect, such as those frequenciesbetween and including the frequencies within the range of f₁ and f₂.Note that f₁ and f₂ correspond to about one half the maximum amplitude,a_(max), of the curve “B”. Thus, whenever the term “exact” or specificreference to “frequency” or the like is used, it should be understood tohave this meaning. In addition, harmonics of spectral catalyst (orspectral conditioning catalyst) frequencies, both above and below theexact spectral catalyst frequency (or spectral conditioning catalystfrequency), will cause sympathetic resonance with the exact frequencyand will catalyze the reaction. Finally, it is possible to catalyzereactions by duplicating one or more of the mechanisms of action of theexact frequency, rather than using the exact frequency itself. Forexample, platinum catalyzes the formation of water from hydrogen andoxygen, in part, by energizing the hydroxyl radical at its frequency ofroughly 1,060 THz. The desired reaction can also be catalyzed byenergizing the hydroxy radical with its microwave frequency, therebyduplicating platinum's mechanism of action.

An electromagnetic radiation-emitting source should have the followingcharacteristics: high intensity of the desired wavelengths; long life;stability; and the ability to emit the electromagnetic energy in apulsed and/or continuous mode. Moreover, in certain cell reactionsystems, it may be desirable for the electromagnetic energy emitted tobe capable of being directed to an appropriate point (or area) within atleast a portion of the cell reaction system. Suitable techniques includeoptical waveguides, optical fibers, etc.

Irradiating sources can include, but are not limited to, arc lamps, suchas xenon-arc, hydrogen and deuterium, krypton-arc, high-pressuremercury, platinum, silver; plasma arcs, discharge lamps, such as As, Bi,Cd, Cs, Ge, Hg, K, Na, P, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Ti, Tl and Zn;hollow-cathode lamps, either single or multiple elements such as Cu, Pt,and Ag; and sunlight and coherent electromagnetic energy emissions, suchas masers and lasers. A more complete list of irradiating sources arelisted in Table D.

Masers are devices which amplify or generate electromagnetic energywaves with great stability and accuracy. Masers operate on the sameprincipal as lasers, but produce electro-magnetic energy in the radioand microwave, rather than visible range of the spectrum. In masers, theelectromagnetic energy is produced by the transition of moleculesbetween rotational energy levels.

Lasers are powerful coherent photon sources that produce a beam ofphotons having the same frequency, phase and direction, that is, a beamof photons that travel exactly alike. Accordingly, for example, thepredetermined spectral pattern of a desired catalyst can be generated bya series or grouping of lasers producing one or more requiredfrequencies.

Any laser capable of emitting the necessary electromagnetic radiationwith a frequency or frequencies of the spectral energy provider may beused in the present invention. Lasers are available for use throughoutmuch of the spectral range. They can be operated in either a continuousor a pulsed mode. Lasers that emit lines and lasers that emit acontinuum may be used in the present invention. Line sources may includeargon ion laser, ruby laser, the nitrogen laser, the Nd:YAG laser, thecarbon dioxide laser, the carbon monoxide laser and the nitrousoxide-carbon dioxide laser. In addition to the spectral lines that areemitted by lasers, several other lines are available, by addition orsubtraction in a crystal of the frequency emitted by one laser to orfrom that emitted by another laser. Devices that combine frequencies andmay be used in the present invention include difference frequencygenerators and sum frequency mixers. Other lasers that may be used inthis invention include, but are not limited to: crystal, such as Al₂O₃doped with Cr³⁺, Y₃Al₅O₁₂ doped with Nd³⁺; gas, such as He—Ne, Kr-ion;glass, chemical, such as vibrationally excited HCL and HF; dye, such asRhodamine 6G in methanol; and semiconductor lasers, such asGa_(1−x)Al_(x)As. Many models can be tuned to various frequency ranges,thereby providing several different frequencies from one instrument andapplying them to the crystallization reaction system (See Examples inTable 2).

TABLE 2 SEVERAL POPULAR LASERS Medium Type Emitted wavelength, nm Ar Gas334, 351.1, 363.8, 454.5, 457.9, 465.8, 472.7, 476.5, 488.0, 496.5,501.7, 514.5, 528.7 Kr Gas 350.7, 356.4, 406.7, 413.1, 415.4, 468.0,476.2, 482.5, 520.8, 530.9, 568.2, 647.1, 676.4, 752.5, 799.3 He—Ne Gas632.8 He—Cd Gas 325.0, 441.6 N₂ Gas 337.1 XeF Gas 351 KrF Gas 248 ArFGas 193 Ruby Solid 693.4 Nd:YAG Solid 266, 355, 532 Pb_(1−x) Cd_(x) SSolid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴ Pb_(1−x) Se_(x) Solid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴Pb_(1−x) Sn_(x) Se Solid 2.9 × 10³-2.6 × 10⁴ Dyes Liquid 217-1000

The coherent light from a single laser or a series of lasers is simplybrought to focus or introduced to the region of the cell reaction systemwhere a desired reaction is to take place. The light source should beclose enough to avoid a “dead space” in which the light does not reachthe desired area in the cell reaction system, but far enough apart toassure complete incident-light absorption. Since ultraviolet sourcesgenerate heat, such sources may need to be cooled to maintain efficientoperation. Irradiation time, causing excitation of one or morecomponents in the cell reaction system, may be individually tailored foreach reaction: some short-term for a continuous reaction with largesurface exposure to the light source; or long light-contact time forother systems. In addition, exposure times and energy amplitudes orintensities may be controlled depending on the desired effect (e.g.,altered energy dynamics, ionizations, bond rupture, etc.).

An object of this invention is to provide a spectral energy pattern(e.g., a spectral pattern of electromagnetic energy) to one or morereactants in a cell reaction system by applying at least a portion of(or substantially all of) a required spectral energy catalyst (e.g., aspectral catalyst) determined and calculated by, for example, waveformanalysis of the spectral patterns of, for example, the reactant(s) andthe reaction product(s). Accordingly, in the case of a spectralcatalyst, a calculated electromagnetic pattern will be a spectralpattern or will act as a spectral catalyst to generate a preferredreaction pathway and/or preferred reaction rate. In basic terms,spectroscopic data for identified substances can be used to perform asimple waveform calculation to arrive at, for example, the correctelectromagnetic energy frequency, or combination of frequencies, neededto catalyze a reaction. In simple terms,A→BSubstance A=50 Hz, and Substance B=80 Hz80 Hz−50 Hz=30 Hz:Therefore, Substance A+30 Hz→Substance B.

The spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral patterns) of both thereactant(s) and reaction product(s) can be determined. In the case of aspectral catalyst, this can be accomplished by the spectroscopic meansmentioned earlier. Once the spectral patterns are determined (e.g.,having a specific frequency or combination of frequencies) within anappropriate set of environmental reaction conditions, the spectralenergy pattern(s) (e.g., electromagnetic conditioning spectralpattern(s)) of the spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral conditioningcatalyst) can be determined. Using the spectral energy pattern (s)(e.g., spectral patterns) of the reactant(s) and reaction product(s), awaveform analysis calculation can determine the energy differencebetween the reactant(s) and reaction product(s) and at least a portionof the calculated spectral energy pattern (e.g., electromagneticspectral pattern) in the form of a spectral energy pattern (e.g., aspectral pattern) of a spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectralcatalyst) can be applied to the desired reaction in a cell reactionsystem to cause the desired reaction to follow along the desired cellreaction pathway. The specific frequency or frequencies of thecalculated spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral pattern)corresponding to the spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst)will provide the necessary energy input into the desired reaction in thecell reaction system to affect and initiate a desired reaction pathway.

Performing the waveform analysis calculation to arrive at, for example,the correct electromagnetic energy frequency or frequencies can beaccomplished by using complex algebra, Fourier transformation or WaveletTransforms, which is available through commercial channels under thetrademark Mathematica® and supplied by Wolfram, Co. It should be notedthat only a portion of a calculated spectral energy catalyst (e.g.,spectral catalyst) may be sufficient to catalyze a reaction or asubstantially complete spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectralcatalyst) may be applied depending on the particular circumstances.

In addition, at least a portion of the spectral energy pattern (e.g.,electromagnetic pattern of the required spectral catalyst) may begenerated and applied to the cell reaction system by, for example, theelectromagnetic radiation emitting sources defined and explainedearlier.

Another object of this invention is to provide a spectral energyconditioning pattern (e.g., a spectral conditioning pattern ofelectromagnetic energy) to one or more conditionable participants in aconditioning reaction system by applying at least a portion of (orsubstantially all of) a required spectral energy conditioning catalyst(e.g., a spectral conditioning catalyst) determined and calculated by,for example, waveform analysis of the spectral patterns of, for example,the conditionable participant, and the conditioned participant.Accordingly, in the case of a spectral conditioning catalyst, acalculated electromagnetic conditioning pattern will be a spectralconditioning pattern which, when applied to a conditionable participant,will permit the conditioned participant to act as a spectral catalyst togenerate a preferred reaction pathway and/or preferred reaction rate ina cell reaction system. In basic terms, spectroscopic data foridentified substances can be used to perform a simple waveformcalculation to arrive at, for example, the correct electromagneticenergy frequency, or combination of frequencies, needed to catalyze areaction. In simple terms,A→BConditionable substance A=50 Hz, and Conditioned Substance B=80 Hz80 Hz−50 Hz=30 Hz:Therefore, Substance A+30 Hz→Substance B.

The spectral energy conditioning pattern (e.g., spectral conditioningpattern) of both the conditionable participant and the conditionedproduct can be determined. In the case of a spectral conditioningcatalyst, this can be accomplished by the spectroscopic means mentionedearlier. Once the spectral patterns are determined (e.g., having aspecific frequency or combination of frequencies) within an appropriateset of environmental reaction conditioning conditions, the spectralenergy conditioning pattern(s) (e.g., electromagnetic spectralconditioning pattern(s)) of the spectral energy conditioning catalyst(e.g., spectral conditioning catalyst) can be determined. Using thespectral energy conditioning pattern(s) (e.g., spectral conditioningpatterns) of the conditionable participant and the conditionedparticipant, a waveform analysis calculation can determine the energydifference between the reactant(s) and reaction product(s) and at leasta portion of the calculated spectral energy conditioning pattern (e.g.,electromagnetic spectral conditioning pattern) in the form of a spectralenergy conditioning (e.g., a spectral conditioning pattern) of aspectral energy conditioning catalyst (e.g., a spectral conditioningcatalyst) can be applied to the desired conditionable participant in aconditioning reaction system to subsequently result in the desiredreaction in the cell reaction system, once the conditioned participantis introduced in the cell reaction system. The specific frequency orfrequencies of the calculated spectral energy conditioning pattern(e.g., a spectral conditioning pattern) corresponding to the spectralenergy conditioning catalyst (e.g., spectral conditioning catalyst)required to form a conditioned participant, will provide the necessaryenergy input into the desired reaction I the cell reaction system toaffect and initiate a desired reaction pathway.

Performing the waveform analysis calculation to arrive at, for example,the correct electromagnetic energy frequency or frequencies can beaccomplished by using complex algebra, Fourier transformation or WaveletTransforms, which is available through commercial channels under thetrademark Mathematica® and supplied by Wolfram, Co. It should be notedthat only a portion of a calculated spectral energy conditioningcatalyst (e.g., spectral conditioning catalyst) used to form aconditioned participant may be sufficient to catalyze a reaction or asubstantially complete spectral energy conditioning catalyst (e.g.,spectral conditioning catalyst) used to form a conditioned participantmay be applied depending on the particular circumstances in aholoreaction system.

In addition, at least a portion of the spectral energy conditioningpattern (e.g., electromagnetic pattern of the required spectralcatalyst) may be generated and applied to the conditioning reactionsystem by, for example, the electromagnetic radiation emitting sourcesdefined and explained earlier.

The specific physical catalysts that may be replaced or augmented by aconditioned participant in the present invention may include any solid,liquid, gas or plasma catalyst, having either homogeneous orheterogeneous catalytic activity. A homogeneous physical catalyst isdefined as a catalyst whose molecules are dispersed in the same phase asthe reacting chemicals. A heterogeneous physical catalyst is defined asone whose molecules are not in the same phase as the reacting chemicals.In addition, enzymes which are considered biological catalysts are to beincluded in the present invention. Some examples of physical catalyststhat may be replaced or augmented comprise both elemental and molecularcatalysts, including, not limited to, metals, such as silver, platinum,nickel, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium and iron; semiconducting metaloxides and sulfides, such as NiO₂, Zn), MgO, Bi₂O₃/MoO₃, TiO₂, SrTiO₃,CdS, CdSe, SiC, GaP, Wo₂ and MgO₃; copper sulfate; insulating oxidessuch as Al₂O₃, SiO₂ and MgO; and Ziegler-Natta catalysts, such astitanium tetrachloride, and trialkyaluminum.

III. Targeting

The frequency and wave nature of energy has been discussed herein.Additionally, Section I entitled “Wave Energies” disclosed the conceptsof various potential interactions between different waves. The generalconcepts of “targeting”, “direct resonance targeting”, “harmonictargeting” and “non-harmonic heterodyne targeting” (all defined termsherein) build on these and other understandings.

Targeting has been defined generally as the application of a spectralenergy provider (e.g., spectral energy catalyst, spectral catalyst,spectral energy pattern, spectral pattern, catalytic spectral energypattern, catalytic spectral pattern, spectral environmental reactionconditions and applied spectral energy pattern) to a desired reaction ina cell reaction system. The application of these types of energies to adesired reaction can result in interaction(s) between the appliedspectral energy provider(s) and matter (including all componentsthereof) in the cell reaction system. This targeting can result in atleast one of direct resonance, harmonic resonance, and/or non-harmonicheterodyne resonance with at least a portion, for example, at least oneform of matter in a cell reaction system. In this invention, targetingshould be generally understood as meaning applying a particular spectralenergy provider (e.g., a spectral energy pattern) to another entitycomprising matter (or any component thereof) to achieve a particulardesired result (e.g., desired reaction product and/or desired reactionproduct at a desired reaction rate). Further, the invention providestechniques for achieving such desirable results without the productionof, for example, undesirable transients, intermediates, activatedcomplexes and/or reaction products. In this regard, some limited priorart techniques exist which have applied certain forms of energies (aspreviously discussed) to various reactions. These certain forms ofenergies have been limited to direct resonance and harmonic resonancewith some electronic frequencies and/or vibrational frequencies of somereactants. These limited forms of energies used by the prior art weredue to the fact that the prior art lacked an adequate understanding ofthe spectral energy mechanisms and techniques disclosed herein.Moreover, it has often been the case in the prior art that at least someundesirable intermediate, transient, activated complex and/or reactionproduct was formed, and/or a less than optimum reaction rate for adesired reaction pathway occurred. The present invention overcomes thelimitations of the prior art by specifically targeting, for example,various forms of matter in a cell reaction system (and/or componentsthereof), with, for example, an applied spectral energy pattern.Heretofore, such selective targeting of the invention was neverdisclosed or suggested. Specifically, at best, the prior art has beenreduced to using random, trial and error or feedback-type analyseswhich, although may result in the identification of a single spectralcatalyst frequency, such approach may be very costly and verytime-consuming, not to mention potentially unreproducible under aslightly different set of reaction conditions. Such trial and errortechniques for determining appropriate catalysts also have the addeddrawback, that having once identified a particular catalyst that works,one is left with no idea of what it means. If one wishes to modify thereaction, including simple reactions using size and shape, another trialand error analysis becomes necessary rather than a simple, quickcalculation offered by the techniques of the present invention.

Accordingly, whenever use of the word “targeting” is made herein, itshould be understood that targeting does not correspond to undisciplinedenergy bands being applied to a cell reaction system; but rather to welldefined, targeted, applied spectral energy patterns, each of which has aparticular desirable purpose in, for example, a reaction pathway toachieve a desired result and/or a desired result at a desired reactionrate.

IV. Conditioning Targeting

Conditioning targeting has been defined generally as the application ofa spectral energy conditioning provider (e.g., spectral energyconditioning catalyst, spectral conditioning catalyst, spectral energyconditioning pattern, spectral conditioning pattern, catalytic spectralenergy conditioning pattern, catalytic spectral conditioning pattern,spectral conditioning environmental reaction conditions and appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern) to a conditionable participant toform at least one conditioned participant, prior to the conditionedparticipant becoming involved in (e.g., introduced into and/or activatedin) a cell reaction system. The application of these types ofconditioning energies to conditionable participants to form conditionedparticipants, prior to the conditioned participants being introduced toa cell reaction system, can result in interaction(s) between theconditioned participant matter, and the components(s) in the reactionsystem (including all components thereof) so that the conditioned mattercan then initiate and/or direct desirable reaction pathways and/ordesirable reaction rates within a cell reaction system. Thisconditioning targeting can result in at least one of direct conditioningresonance, harmonic conditioning resonance, and/or non-harmonicconditioning heterodyne resonance with at least a portion of, forexample, at least one form of conditionable participant matter (of anyform) to form conditioned participant matter, which is later introducedinto, or activated in, a cell reaction system. In this invention,conditioning targeting should be generally understood as meaningapplying a particular spectral energy conditioning provider (e.g., aspectral energy conditioning pattern) to another conditionable entitycomprising conditionable matter (or any component thereof) to achieve aparticular desired result (e.g., ultimately achieve a desired reactionproduct and/or desired reaction product at a desired reaction rate inthe cell reaction system due to the conditioned matter being introducedinto the cell reaction system.). It should be noted that introductioninto the cell reaction system should not be construed as meaning only aphysical introduction of a conditioned participant that has beenconditioned in a conditioning reaction vessel, but should also beunderstood as meaning that a conditionable participant can beconditioned in situ in a reaction vessel (or the reaction vessel per secan be conditioned) and the cell reaction system is thereafterinitiated, activated, or turned on (e.g., initiated by the applicationof, for example, temperature, pressure, etc.) once the conditionedparticipant is present in the reaction vessel. Thus, the inventionprovides techniques for achieving such desirable results without theproduction of, for example, undesirable transients, intermediates,activated complexes and/or reaction products by using a conditionedparticipant. In this regard, some limited prior art techniques existwhich have applied certain forms of energies directly to cell reactionsystems. These certain forms of energies directly applied to cellreaction systems have been limited to direct resonance and harmonicresonance with some electronic frequencies and/or vibrationalfrequencies of some reactants in the cell reaction system. These limitedforms of energies used by the prior art were due to the fact that theprior art lacked an adequate understanding of the spectral energymechanisms and techniques disclosed herein.

Moreover, it has often been the case in the prior art that at least someundesirable intermediate, transient, activated complex and/or reactionproduct was formed, and/or a less than optimum reaction rate for adesired reaction pathway occurred. The present invention overcomes thelimitations of the prior art by specifically targeting, for example,various forms of conditionable matter (and/or components thereof) toform conditioned matter prior to the conditioned matter being involvedwith reactions in a cell reaction system. Heretofore, such selectiveconditioning targeting of the invention was never disclosed orsuggested. Specifically, at best, the prior art has been reduced tousing random, trial and error or feedback-type analyses in variousreactions which, although may result in the identification of a singlespectral energy conditioning provider, such approach may be very costlyand very time-consuming, not to mention potentially unreproducible undera slightly different set of reaction conditions and further, not tomention the simplicity of the application of a conditioning energy to aconditionable participant that eventually becomes involved in a cellreaction system. Such trial and error techniques for determiningappropriate conditioning providers also have the added drawback, thathaving once identified a particular conditioning provider that works,one is left with no idea of what it means. If one wishes to modify thereaction, including simple reactions using size and shape, another trialand error analysis becomes necessary rather than a simple, quickcalculation offered by the techniques of the present invention.

Accordingly, whenever use of the word “conditioning targeting” is madeherein, it should be understood that conditioning targeting does notcorrespond to undisciplined energy bands being applied to aconditionable participant to form a conditioned participant which thenbecomes involved in a cell reaction system; but rather to well defined,targeted, applied spectral energy conditioning patterns, each of whichhas a particular desirable purpose to form a conditioned participant sothat the conditioned participant can, for example, permit a desiredreaction pathway to be followed, and/or achieve a desired result and/ora desired result at a desired reaction rate in a cell reaction system.These results include conditioning targeting a single form ofconditionable participant matter to form conditioned matter which, whensuch conditioned matter is activated or initiated in a cell reactionsystem, causes the conditioned matter to behave favorably, orconditioning targeting multiple forms of conditionable participantmatter to achieve desirable results.

V. Environmental Reaction Conditions

Environmental reaction conditions are important to understand becausethey can influence, positively or negatively, reaction pathways in acell reaction system. Traditional environmental reaction conditionsinclude temperature, pressure, surface area of catalysts, catalyst sizeand shape, solvents, support materials, poisons, promoters,concentrations, electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magneticfields, mechanical forces, acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shapeand composition and combinations thereof, etc.

The following reaction can be used to discuss the effects ofenvironmental reaction conditions which may need to be taken intoaccount in order to cause the reaction to proceed along the simplereaction pathway shown below.CA→B

Specifically, in some instances, reactant A will not form into reactionproduct B in the presence of any catalyst C unless the environmentalreaction conditions in the cell reaction system include certain maximumor minimum conditions of environmental reaction conditions such aspressure and/or temperature. In this regard, many reactions will notoccur in the presence of a physical catalyst unless the environmentalreaction conditions include, for example, an elevated temperature and/oran elevated pressure. In the present invention, such environmentalreaction conditions should be taken into consideration when applying aparticular spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst). Manyspecifics of the various environmental reaction conditions are discussedin greater detail in the Section herein entitled “Description of thePreferred Embodiments”.

VI. Conditioning Environmental Reaction Conditions

Conditioning environmental reaction conditions are also important tounderstand because they can also influence, positively or negatively,the energy dynamics and conditioning of a conditionable participant andcan ultimately lead to different reaction pathways in a cell reactionsystem when a conditioned participant is introduced into, or activated,in the cell reaction system. The same traditional environmental reactionconditions listed above also apply here, namely temperature, pressure,surface area of catalysts, catalyst size and shape, solvents, supportmaterials, poisons, promoters, concentrations, electromagneticradiation, electric fields, magnetic fields, mechanical forces, acousticfields, reaction vessel size, shape and composition and combinationsthereof, etc.

In the present invention, such conditioning environmental reactionconditions should be taken into consideration when applying a particularspectral energy conditioning catalyst (e.g., a spectral conditioningcatalyst) to a conditionable participant. Similar environmentalconsiderations to those discussed above need to be taken into accountwhen the conditioned participant is introduced into a cell reactionsystem. Many specifics of the various environmental and/or conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions are discussed in greater detail in theSection herein entitled “Description of the Preferred Embodiments”.

VII. Spectral Environmental Reaction Conditions

If it is known that certain reaction pathways will not occur within acell reaction system (or not occur at a desirable rate) even when acatalyst is present unless, for example, certain minimum or maximumenvironmental reaction conditions are present (e.g., the temperatureand/or pressure is/are elevated), then an additional frequency orcombination of frequencies (i.e., an applied spectral energy pattern)can be applied to the cell reaction system. In this regard, spectralenvironmental reaction condition(s) can be applied instead of, or tosupplement, those environmental reaction conditions that are naturallypresent, or need to be present, in order for a desired reaction pathwayand/or desired reaction rate to be followed. The environmental reactionconditions that can be supplemented or replaced with spectralenvironmental reaction conditions include, for example, temperature,pressure, surface area of catalysts, catalyst size and shape, solvents,support materials, poisons, promoters, concentrations, electric fields,magnetic fields, etc.

Still further, a particular frequency or combination of frequenciesand/or fields that can produce one or more spectral environmentalreaction conditions can be combined with one or more spectral energycatalysts and/or spectral catalysts to generate an applied spectralenergy pattern which can be focussed on a particular area in a cellreaction system. Accordingly, various considerations can be taken intoaccount for what particular frequency or combination of frequenciesand/or fields may be desirable to combine with (or replace) variousenvironmental reaction conditions, for example.

As an example, in a simple reaction, assume that a first reactant “A”has a frequency or simple spectral pattern of 3 THz and a secondreactant “B” has a frequency or simple spectral pattern of 7 THz. Atroom temperature, no reaction occurs. However, when reactants A and Bare exposed to high temperatures, their frequencies, or simple spectralpatterns, both shift to 5 THz. Since their frequencies match, theytransfer energy and a reaction occurs. By applying a frequency of 2 THz,at room temperature, the applied 2 THz frequency will heterodyne withthe 3 THz pattern to result in, both 1 Thz and 5 THz heterodynedfrequencies; while the applied frequency of 2 THz will heterodyne withthe spectral pattern of 7 THz of reactant “B” and result in heterodynedfrequencies of 5 THz and 9 THz in reactant “B”. Thus, the heterodynedfrequencies of 5 THz are generated at room temperature in each of thereactants “A” and “B”. Accordingly, frequencies in each of the reactantsmatch and thus energy can transfer between the reactants “A” and “B”.When the energy can transfer between such reactants, all desirablereactions along a reaction pathway may be capable of being achieved.However, in certain reactions, only some desirable reactions along areaction pathway are capable of being achieved by the application of asingular frequency. In these instances, additional frequencies and/orfields may need to be applied to result in all desirable steps along areaction pathway being met, including but not limited to, the formationof all required reaction intermediates and/or transients.

Thus, by applying a frequency, or combination of frequencies and/orfields (i.e., creating an applied spectral energy pattern) whichcorresponds to at least one spectral environmental reaction condition,the spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns of, for example,reactant(s), intermediates, transients, catalysts, etc.) can beeffectively modified which may result in broader spectral energypatterns (e.g., broader spectral patterns), in some cases, or narrowerspectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns) in other cases. Suchbroader or narrower spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns)may correspond to a broadening or narrowing of line widths in a spectralenergy pattern (e.g., a spectral pattern). As stated throughout herein,when frequencies match, energy transfers. In this particular embodiment,frequencies can be caused to match by, for example, broadening thespectral pattern of one or more participants in a cell reaction system.For example, as discussed in much greater detail later herein, theapplication of temperature to a cell reaction system typically causesthe broadening of one or more spectral patterns (e.g., line widthbroadening) of, for example, one or more reactants in the cell reactionsystem. It is this broadening of spectral patterns that can causespectral patterns of one or more reactants to, for example, overlap. Theoverlapping of the spectral patterns can cause frequencies to match, andthus energy to transfer. When energy is transferred, reactions canoccur. The scope of reactions which occur, include all of thosereactions along any particular reaction pathway. Thus, the broadening ofspectral pattern(s) can result in, for example, formation of reactionproduct, formation of and/or stimulation and/or stabilization ofreaction intermediates and/or transients, catalyst frequencies, poisons,promoters, etc. All of the environmental reaction conditions that arediscussed in detail in the section entitled “Detailed Description of thePreferred Embodiments” can be at least partially simulated in a cellreaction system by the application of a spectral environmental reactioncondition.

Similarly, spectral patterns can be caused to become non-overlapping bychanging, for example, at least one spectral environmental reactioncondition, and thus changing the applied spectral energy pattern. Inthis instance, energy will not transfer (or the rate at which energytransfers can be reduced) and reactions will not occur (or the rates ofreactions can be slowed).

Finally, by controlling spectral environmental reaction conditions, theenergy dynamics within a holoreaction system may be controlled. Forexample, with a first spectral environmental reaction condition, a firstset of frequencies may match and hence energy may transfer at a firstset of energy levels and types. When the spectral environmental reactioncondition is changed, a second set of frequencies may match, resultingin transfer of energy at different levels or types.

Spectral environmental reaction conditions can be utilized to startand/or stop reactions in a reaction pathway. Thus, certain reactions canbe started, stopped, slowed and/or speeded up by, for example, applyingdifferent spectral environmental reaction conditions at different timesduring a reaction and/or at different intensities. Thus, spectralenvironmental reaction conditions are capable of influencing, positivelyor negatively, reaction pathways and/or reaction rates in a cellreaction system.

VIII. Spectral Conditioning Environmental Reaction Conditions

Similarly, spectral conditioning environmental reaction conditionsconsiderations apply in a parallel manner in this section as well.Specifically, if it is known that certain conditioning of a conditionedparticipant will not occur (or not occur at a desirable rate), unlessfor example, certain minimum or maximum conditioning environmentalreaction conditions are present (e.g., the temperature and/or pressureis/are elevated), then an additional frequency or combination offrequencies (i.e., an applied spectral energy conditioning pattern) canbe applied to the conditionable participant. In this regard, spectralconditioning environmental reaction condition(s) can be applied insteadof, or to supplement, those conditioning environmental reactionconditions that are naturally present, or need to be present, in orderfor a desired conditioning of a conditionable participant to occur(i.e., to form a desired conditioned participant). The conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions that can be supplemented or replacedwith spectral conditioning environmental reaction conditions include,for example, temperature, pressure, surface area of catalysts, catalystsize and shape, solvents, support materials, poisons, promoters,concentrations, electric fields, magnetic fields, etc.

Still further, a particular frequency or combination of frequenciesand/or fields that can produce one or more spectral conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions can be combined with one or morespectral energy conditioning catalysts and/or spectral conditioningcatalysts to generate an applied spectral energy conditioning pattern.Accordingly, various considerations can be taken into account for whatparticular frequency or combination of frequencies and/or fields may bedesirable to combine with (or replace) various conditioningenvironmental reaction conditions, for example.

Thus, by applying a frequency, or combination of frequencies and/orfields (i.e., creating an applied spectral energy conditioning pattern)which corresponds to at least one spectral environmental conditioningreaction condition, the spectral energy conditioning patterns of aconditionable participant can be effectively modified which may resultin broader spectral energy conditioning patterns (e.g., broader spectralconditioning patterns), in some cases, or narrower spectral energyconditioning patterns (e.g., spectral conditioning patterns) in othercases. Such broader or narrower spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectralconditioning patterns) may correspond to a broadening or narrowing ofline widths in a spectral conditioning energy pattern (e.g., a spectralconditioning pattern). As stated throughout herein, when frequenciesmatch, energy transfers. In this particular embodiment, frequencies canbe caused to match by, for example, broadening the spectral conditioningpattern of one or more participants in a cell reaction system. Forexample, as discussed in much greater detail later herein, theapplication of temperature to a conditioning reaction system typicallycauses the broadening of one or more spectral conditioning patterns(e.g., line width broadening) of, for example, one or more conditionableparticipants in a conditioning reaction system. It is this broadening ofspectral conditioning patterns that can cause spectral conditioningpatterns of one or more constituents in a conditioning reaction systemto, for example, overlap. The overlapping of the spectral conditioningpatterns can cause frequencies to match, and thus energy to transfer toresult in a conditioned participant. The same conditionable participantmay be conditioned with different spectral energy patterns or amounts toresult in conditioned participants with different energy dynamics (e.g.,energized electronic level versus energized rotation). The scope ofreactions which occur once a conditioned participant is introduced intoa cell reaction system, include all of those reactions along anyparticular reaction pathway. Thus, the broadening of spectralconditioned pattern(s) in a conditioned participant can result in, forexample, formation of reaction product, formation of and/or stimulationand/or stabilization of reaction intermediates and/or transients,catalyst frequencies, poisons, promoters, etc., in a cell reactionsystem. All of the conditioning environmental reaction conditions thatare discussed in detail in the section entitled “Detailed Description ofthe Preferred Embodiments” can be at least partially simulated in aconditioning reaction system by the application of a spectralconditioning environmental reaction condition.

Spectral conditioning environmental reaction conditions can be utilizedto start direct, contain and/or appropriately condition a conditionableparticipant so that the conditioned participant can stop reactions orreaction pathways in a cell reaction system. Thus, certain reactions canbe started, stopped, slowed and/or speeded up in a cell reaction systemby, for example, applying different spectral conditioning environmentalreaction conditions to a conditionable participant and introducing theconditioned participant into a cell reaction system at different timesduring a reaction and/or at different intensities. Thus, spectralconditioning environmental reaction conditions are capable ofinfluencing, positively or negatively, reaction pathways and/or reactionrates in a cell reaction system by providing different spectral energypatterns in one or more conditioned participants.

IX. Designing Physical and Spectral Catalysts

Moreover, by utilizing the above techniques to design (e.g., calculateor determine) a desirable spectral energy pattern, such as a desirablespectral pattern for a spectral energy catalyst rather than applying thespectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) per se, for example,the designed spectral pattern can be used to design and/or determine anoptimum physical and/or spectral catalyst that could be used in the cellreaction system to obtain a particular result. Further, the inventionmay be able to provide a recipe for a physical and/or spectral catalystfor a particular cell reaction where no catalyst previously existed. Forexample in a reaction where:A→I→Bwhere A=reactant, B=product and I=known intermediate, and there is noknown catalyst, either a physical or spectral catalyst could be designedwhich, for example, resonates with the intermediate “I”, therebycatalyzing the formation of one or more desirable reaction product(s).

As a first step, the designed spectral pattern could be compared toknown spectral patterns for existing materials to determine ifsimilarities exist between the designed spectral pattern and spectralpatterns of known materials. If the designed spectral pattern at leastpartially matches against a spectral pattern of a known material, thenit is possible to utilize the known material as a physical catalyst toobtain a desired reaction and/or desired reaction pathway or rate in acell reaction system. In this regard, it may be desirable to utilize theknown material alone or in combination with a spectral energy catalystand/or a spectral catalyst. Still further, it may be possible to utilizeenvironmental reaction conditions and/or spectral environmental reactionconditions to cause the known material to behave in a manner which iseven closer to the designed energy pattern or spectral pattern. Further,the application of different spectral energy patterns may cause thedesigned catalyst to behave in different manners, such as, for example,encouraging a first reaction pathway with the application of a firstspectral energy pattern and encouraging a second reaction pathway withthe application of a second spectral energy pattern. Likewise, thechanging of one or more environmental reaction conditions could have asimilar effect.

Further, this designed catalyst has applications in all types ofreactions including, but not limited to, chemical (organic andinorganic), biological, physical, energy, etc.

Still further, in certain cases, one or more physical species could beused or combined in a suitable manner, for example, physical mixing orby a chemical reaction, to obtain a physical catalyst materialexhibiting the appropriate designed spectral energy pattern (e.g.,spectral pattern) to achieve a desired reaction pathway. Accordingly, acombination of designed catalyst(s) (e.g., a physical catalyst which isknown or manufactured expressly to function as a physical catalyst),spectral energy catalyst(s) and/or spectral catalyst(s) can result in aresultant energy pattern (e.g., which in this case can be a combinationof physical catalyst(s) and/or spectral catalyst(s)) which is conduciveto forming desired reaction product(s) and/or following a desiredreaction pathway at a desired reaction rate. In this regard, variousline width broadening and/or narrowing of spectral energy pattern(s)and/or spectral pattern(s) may occur when the designed catalyst iscombined with various spectral energy patterns and/or spectral patterns.

It is important to consider the energy interactions between allcomponents involved in the desired reaction in a cell reaction systemwhen calculating or determining an appropriate designed catalyst. Therewill be a particular combination of specific energy pattern(s) (e.g.,electromagnetic energy) that will interact with the designed catalyst toform an applied spectral energy pattern. The particular frequencies, forexample, of electromagnetic radiation that should be caused to beapplied to a cell reaction system should be as many of those frequenciesas possible, when interacting with the frequencies of the designedcatalyst, that can result in desirable effects to one or moreparticipants in the cell reaction system, while eliminating as many ofthose frequencies as possible which result in undesirable effects withinthe cell reaction system.

X. Designing Conditionable Participants

Moreover, by utilizing the above techniques to design (e.g., calculateor determine) a desirable spectral energy pattern, such as a desirablespectral pattern for a spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectralcatalyst) rather than applying the spectral energy catalyst (e.g.,spectral catalyst) per se, for example, the designed spectral patterncan be achieved in a conditioned participant (e.g., appropriatelyconditioning a conditionable participant) which may function as anoptimum physical and/or spectral catalyst that could be used in the cellreaction system when the conditioned participant is introduced into oractivated in the cell reaction system. Further, the invention may beable to provide a recipe for a conditioned physical participant for aparticular reaction system where no catalyst previously existed. Forexample in a reaction where:A→I→Bwhere A=reactant, B=product and I=known intermediate, and there is noknown catalyst, a conditionable physical participant could beconditioned which, for example, resonates with the intermediate “I”,when the conditioned participant is, for example, introduced into thecell reaction system. Thus, the conditioned physical participant couldcatalyze the reaction when the conditioned physical participant isintroduced to the cell reaction system.

As a first step, the desired spectral pattern for resonating with knownintermediate “I” could be compared to known spectral patterns forexisting conditionable materials to determine if similarities existbetween the desired spectral pattern and spectral patterns of knownconditionable materials. If the desired spectral pattern at leastpartially matches against a spectral pattern of a known conditionablematerial, then it may be possible to condition the known conditionablematerial to form a conditioned material which then could function as,for example, a physical catalyst, in a cell reaction system. In thisregard, it may be desirable to utilize the conditioned material(s) aloneor in combination with a spectral energy catalyst and/or a spectralcatalyst in a cell reaction system. Still further, it may be possible toutilize environmental reaction conditions and/or spectral environmentalreaction conditions to cause the conditioned material to behave in amanner which is even closer to the desired energy pattern or spectralpattern required in a cell reaction system. Further, the application ofdifferent spectral energy patterns may cause the conditioned material tobehave in different manners, such as, for example, encouraging a firstreaction pathway with the application of a first spectral energy patternand encouraging a second reaction pathway with the application of asecond spectral energy pattern once the conditioned material isintroduced to the cell reaction system. Thus, various phases,compositions, products, etc., could be achieved from the same or similarreaction system(s) merely by altering the spectral energy conditioningpattern which is exposed to the conditionable participant prior to theconditionable participant being introduced into the cell reaction systemas a conditioned participant. In addition, various desirable results mayoccur when the conditioned participant is introduced into the cellreaction system and thereafter various spectral energy patterns and/orspectral patterns are introduced into the cell reaction system alongwith the conditioned participant.

Further, this designed conditioned participant has applications in alltypes of reactions including, but not limited to, chemical (organic andinorganic), biological, physical, energy, etc.

Still further, in certain cases, one or more physical species could beused or combined in a suitable manner, for example, physical mixing orby a chemical reaction, to obtain a physical conditionable materialexhibiting the appropriate designed spectral energy conditioned pattern(e.g., once suitably conditioned) to achieve a desired reaction pathwayonce the conditioned matter is introduced into a cell reaction system.Accordingly, a combination of designed conditionable participant(s)(e.g., a physical conditionable material which is known or manufacturedexpressly to function as a physical catalyst once it is suitablytargeted with a conditioning energy), spectral energy conditioningcatalyst(s) and/or spectral conditioning catalyst(s) can result in aresultant conditioned energy pattern (e.g., which in this case can be acombination of physical material(s) and/or spectral conditionedcatalyst(s)) which is conducive to forming desired reaction product(s)and/or following a desired reaction pathway at a desired reaction rateonce the conditioned material is introduced into the cell reactionsystem. In this regard, various line width broadening and/or narrowingof spectral energy pattern(s) and/or spectral pattern(s) may occur whenthe designed conditionable participant is combined with various spectralenergy conditioning patterns and/or spectral conditioning patterns toform a conditioned participant.

It is important to consider the energy interactions between allcomponents of the holoreaction system when calculating or determining anappropriate designed conditionable participant. There will be aparticular combination of specific energy pattern(s) (e.g.,electromagnetic energy) that will interact with the conditionedparticipant to result in an applied spectral energy pattern once theconditioned participant is introduced into the cell reaction system. Theparticular frequencies, for example, of electromagnetic radiation thatshould be caused to be applied to a conditioning reaction system shouldbe as many of those frequencies as possible, when interacting with thefrequencies of the conditionable participant, that can result indesirable effects in the cell reaction system when the conditionedparticipant is introduced therein, while eliminating as many of thosefrequencies as possible which result in undesirable effects within thecell reaction system.

XI. Objects of the Invention

All of the above information disclosing the invention should provide acomprehensive understanding of the main aspects of the invention.However, in order to understand the invention further, the inventionshall now be discussed in terms of some of the representative objects orgoals to be achieved.

1. One object of this invention is to control or direct a reactionpathway in a cell reaction system by applying a spectral energy patternin the form of a spectral catalyst having at least one electromagneticenergy frequency which may initiate, activate, and/or affect at leastone of the participants involved in the cell reaction system.

2. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selectiveand economical process for replacing a known physical catalyst (e.g.,present in or near at least a portion of an electrode and/orelectrolyte) in a cell reaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to at least a portion of the cell reaction system at least aportion of the catalytic spectral pattern.

3. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to augment aphysical catalyst in a cell reaction system with its own catalyticspectral pattern comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst; and

duplicating at least one frequency of the spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst with at least one electromagnetic energy emittersource to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to at least a portion of the cell reaction system at least onefrequency of the catalytic spectral pattern at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze the formation of reactionproduct(s) in a desired portion of the cell reaction system. Said atleast one frequency can be applied by at least one of: (1) a wave guide:(2) an optical fiber array; (3) at least one element added adjacent to,on and/or in at least one of the electrode and/or electrolyte to thecell reaction system which permits energy to be radiated therefrom; (4)an electric field; (5) a magnetic field; (6) an acoustic field and/or(7) a transducer, etc.

4. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selectiveand economical process for replacing a known physical catalyst in a cellreaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) to form a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying to the cell reaction system at least a portion of the catalyticspectral pattern; and,

applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern which forms anapplied spectral energy pattern when combined with said catalyticspectral pattern.

5. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to replace aphysical catalyst in a cell reaction system comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst;

duplicating at least one frequency of the electromagnetic spectralpattern of the physical catalyst with at least one electromagneticenergy emitter source to form a catalytic spectral pattern;

applying to the cell reaction system at least one frequency of thecatalytic spectral pattern; and

applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern to form anapplied spectral energy pattern, said applied spectral energy patternbeing applied at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration tocatalyze the formation of at least one reaction product in the cellreaction system.

6. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a particular reaction pathway in a cell reaction systemwith a spectral catalyst by augmenting a physical catalyst comprisingthe steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst) with at least one energy emitter source to form acatalytic spectral pattern;

applying to the cell reaction system, (e.g., irradiating) at least aportion of the catalytic spectral pattern (e.g., an electromagneticspectral pattern having a frequency range of from about radio frequencyto about ultraviolet frequency) at a sufficient intensity and for asufficient duration to catalyze one or more particular reactions in thecell reaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying said catalytic spectral pattern to the cell reaction system.

7. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a particular reaction in a cell reaction system with aspectral energy catalyst by augmenting a physical catalyst comprisingthe steps of:

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze the particular cell reactionin the cell reaction system;

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying the spectral energy catalyst to the cell reaction system.

8. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a desired reaction pathway in a cell reaction system witha spectral catalyst and a spectral energy catalyst by augmenting aphysical catalyst comprising the steps of:

applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity andfor a sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze the desiredcell reaction system;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze the desiredcell reaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying the spectral catalyst and/or the spectral energy catalyst tothe cell reaction system. Moreover, the spectral catalyst and spectralenergy catalyst may be applied simultaneously to form an appliedspectral energy pattern or they may be applied sequentially either atthe same time or at different times from when the physical catalyst isintroduced into the cell reaction system.

9. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a desired reaction into a cell reaction system with aspectral catalyst and a spectral energy catalyst and a spectralenvironmental reaction condition, with or without a physical catalyst,comprising the steps of:

applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity andfor a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;

applying at last one spectral environmental reaction condition at asufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze areaction pathway, whereby when any of said at least one spectralcatalyst, said at least one spectral energy catalyst and/or at least onespectral environmental reaction condition are applied at the same time,they form an applied spectral energy pattern; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system (e.g.,into and/or onto at least a portion of the anode and/or cathode and/orelectrolyte).

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying any one of, or any combination of, the spectral catalyst and/orthe spectral energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmental reactioncondition to the cell reaction system. Likewise, the spectral catalystand/or the spectral energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmentalreaction condition can be provided sequentially or continuously.

10. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand direct a cell reaction system with an applied spectral energypattern and a spectral energy catalyst comprising the steps of:

applying at least one applied spectral energy pattern at a sufficientintensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze a particularreaction in a cell reaction system, whereby said at least one appliedspectral energy pattern comprises at least two members selected from thegroup consisting of catalytic spectral energy pattern, catalyticspectral pattern, spectral catalyst, spectral energy catalyst, spectralenergy pattern, spectral environmental reaction condition and spectralpattern; and

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst to the cell reactionsystem.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the applied spectralenergy pattern into the cell reaction system before, and/or during,and/or after applying the spectral energy catalyst to the cell reactionsystem. Moreover, the spectral energy catalyst and the applied spectralenergy pattern can be provided sequentially or continuously. If appliedcontinuously, a new applied spectral energy pattern is formed.

11. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystcomprising the steps of:

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for startingreactant(s) in a particular reaction in said cell reaction system;

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for reactionproduct(s) in said particular reaction in said cell reaction system;

calculating an additive and/or subtractive spectral energy pattern(e.g., at least one electromagnetic frequency) from said reactant(s) andreaction product(s) spectral energy patterns to determine a requiredspectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst);

generating at least a portion of the required spectral energy catalyst(e.g., at least one electromagnetic frequency of the required spectralcatalyst); and

applying to the particular reaction in said cell reaction system (e.g.,irradiating with electromagnetic energy) said at least a portion of therequired spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) to form atleast one desired reaction product(s).

12. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystcomprising the steps of:

targeting at least one participant in said cell reaction system with atleast one spectral energy catalyst to cause the formation and/orstimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/or atleast one intermediate to result in desired reaction product(s).

13. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy pattern toresult in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy pattern for a sufficient time andat a sufficient intensity to cause the formation and/or stimulationand/or stabilization of at least one transient and/or at least oneintermediate to result in desired reaction product(s) at a desiredreaction rate.

14. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect anddirect a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst and atleast one of the spectral environmental reaction conditions comprisingthe steps of:

applying at least one applied spectral energy catalyst to at least oneparticipant in said cell reaction system; and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition to saidcell reaction system to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/orstabilization of at least one transient and/or at least one intermediateto permit desired reaction product(s) to form.

15. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst toresult in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one frequency (e.g., electromagnetic) whichheterodynes with at least one reactant frequency to cause the formationof and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transientand/or at least one intermediate to result in desired reactionproduct(s).

16. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with at least one spectral energypattern resulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying a sufficient number of frequencies (e.g., electromagnetic)and/or fields (e.g., electric, magnetic and/or acoustic) to result in anapplied spectral energy pattern which stimulates all transients and/orintermediates required in a reaction pathway to result in desiredreaction product(s).

17. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

targeting at least one participant in said cell reaction system with atleast one frequency and/or field to form, indirectly, at least onetransient and/or at least one intermediate, whereby formation of said atleast one transient and/or at least one intermediate results in theformation of an additional at least one transient and/or at least oneadditional intermediate.

18. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

targeting at least one spectral energy catalyst to at least oneparticipant in said cell reaction system to form indirectly at least onetransient and/or at least one intermediate, whereby formation of said atleast one transient and/or at least one intermediate results in theformation of an additional at least one transient and/or at least oneadditional intermediate.

19. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a cell reaction system along a desired reaction pathwaycomprising:

applying at least one targeting approach selected from the group ofapproaches consisting of direct resonance targeting, harmonic targetingand non-harmonic heterodyne targeting.

In this regard, these targeting approaches can cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/orat least one intermediate in at least a portion of said cell reactionsystem to result in desired reaction product(s).

20. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system comprising:

applying at least one frequency to at least one participant and/or atleast one component in said cell reaction system to cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/orat least one intermediate to result in desired reaction product(s),whereby said at least one frequency comprises at least one frequencyselected from the group consisting of direct resonance frequencies,harmonic resonance frequencies, non-harmonic heterodyne resonancefrequencies, electronic frequencies, vibrational frequencies, rotationalfrequencies, rotational-vibrational frequencies, librationalfrequencies, translational frequencies, gyrational frequencies, finesplitting frequencies, hyperfine splitting frequencies, electric fieldinduced frequencies, magnetic field induced frequencies, cyclotronresonance frequencies, orbital frequencies, acoustic frequencies and/ornuclear frequencies.

In this regard, the applied frequencies can include any desirablefrequency or combination of frequencies which resonates directly,harmonically or by a non-harmonic heterodyne technique, with at leastone participant and/or at least one component in said cell reactionsystem.

21. It is another object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a cell reaction system along with a desired reaction pathwaywith a spectral energy pattern comprising:

applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause the spectralenergy pattern (e.g., spectral pattern) of at least one participantand/or at least one component in said cell reaction system to at leastpartially overlap with the spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectralpattern) of at least one other participant and/or at least one othercomponent in said cell reaction system to permit the transfer of energybetween said at least two participants and/or components.

22. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy patternresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy pattern to cause the spectralenergy pattern of at least one participant and/or component in said cellreaction system to at least partially overlap with a spectral energypattern of at least one other participant and/or component in said cellreaction system to permit the resonant transfer of energy between the atleast two participants and/or components, thereby causing the formationof said at least one reaction product.

23. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause spectral energypattern (e.g., spectral pattern) broadening of at least one participant(e.g., at least one reactant) and/or component in said cell reactionsystem to cause a transfer of energy to occur resulting intransformation (e.g., chemically, physically, phase, property orotherwise) of at least one participant and/or at least one component insaid cell reaction system.

In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction productwhich is of a different chemical composition and/or different physicalor crystalline composition and/or phases than any of the chemical and/orphysical or crystalline compositions and/or phases of any startingreactant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion of areactant into a reaction product.

24. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a spectral energy catalystresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying an applied spectral energy pattern to cause spectral energypattern (e.g., spectral pattern) broadening of at least one participant(e.g., at least one reactant) and/or component in said cell reactionsystem to cause a resonant transfer of energy to occur resulting intransformation (e.g., chemically, physically, phase, property orotherwise) of at least one participant and/or at least one component insaid cell reaction system.

In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction productwhich is of a different chemical composition and/or different physicalor crystalline composition and/or phase and/or exhibits differentproperties than the chemical and/or physical or crystalline compositionsand/or phases of any starting reactant. Thus, only transients may beinvolved in the conversion of a reactant into a reaction product.

25. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcontrolling a reaction and/or directing a reaction pathway in a cellreaction system by utilizing at least one spectral environmentalreaction condition, comprising:

forming a cell reaction system; and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition todirect said cell reaction system along at least one desired reactionpathway.

In this regard, the applied spectral environmental reaction conditioncan be used alone or in combination with other environmental reactionconditions to achieve desired results. Further, additional spectralenergy patterns may also be applied, simultaneously and/or continuouslywith said spectral environmental reaction condition.

26. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for designinga catalyst where no catalyst previously existed (e.g., a physicalcatalyst and/or spectral energy catalyst), to be used in a cell reactionsystem, comprising:

determining a required spectral pattern to obtain a desired reactionand/or desired reaction pathway and/or desired cell reaction rate; and

designing a catalyst (e.g., material or combination of materials, and/orspectral energy catalysts) that exhibit(s) a spectral pattern thatapproximates the required spectral pattern.

In this regard, the designed catalyst material may comprise a physicaladmixing of one or more materials and/or more materials that have beencombined by an appropriate reaction, such as a chemical reaction. Thedesigned material may be enhanced in function by one or more spectralenergy patterns that may also be applied to the cell reaction system.Moreover, the application of different spectral energy patterns maycause the designed material to behave in different manners, such as, forexample, encouraging a first reaction pathway with the application of afirst spectral energy pattern and encouraging a second reaction pathwaywith the application of a second spectral energy pattern. Likewise, thechanging of one or more environmental reaction conditions could have asimilar effect.

Further, this designed material has applications in all types ofreactions including, but not limited to, chemical (organic andinorganic), biological, physical, etc.

27. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcontrolling a reaction and/or directing a reaction pathway in a cellreaction system by preventing at least a portion of certain undesirablespectral energy from interacting with a cell reaction system comprising:

providing at least one control means for absorbing, filtering, trapping,reflecting, etc., spectral energy incident thereon;

permitting desirable spectral energy emitted from said control means andcontacting at least a portion of a cell reaction system with saidemitted spectral energy; and

causing said emitted spectral energy from said control means todesirably interact with said cell reaction system thereby directing saidcell reaction system along at least one desired reaction pathway.

28. It should be understood that in each of the aforementioned 27Objects of the Invention, that cell reaction systems also includepreventing certain reaction phenomena from occurring, when desirable.

29. One object of this invention is to control or direct a reactionpathway in a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant, andforming the conditioned participant by applying a spectral energyconditioning pattern (e.g., a spectral conditioning catalyst) to atleast one conditionable participant, said conditionable participantthereafter having at least one conditioned energy frequency (e.g.,electromagnetic energy frequency) which may initiate, activate, and/oraffect at least one of the participants involved in the cell reactionsystem and/or may itself be affected by a subsequent application ofspectral energy in the cell reaction system.

30. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient,selective and economical process for replacing a known physical catalyst(e.g., present in or near at least a portion of an electrode and/orelectrolyte) in a cell reaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst) by modifying a conditionable participant so that theconditionable participant forms a catalytic spectral pattern; and

applying or introducing to the cell reaction system the conditionedparticipant.

31. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to augment aphysical catalyst in a cell reaction system with its own catalyticspectral pattern comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst; and

duplicating at least one frequency of the spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst by conditioning a conditionable participant with atleast one electromagnetic energy emitter source to form a catalyticspectral pattern in the conditioned participant; and

applying to the cell reaction system the conditioned participant at asufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze theformation of reaction product(s) in a desired portion of the cellreaction system. Said at least one frequency can be applied by at leastone of: (1) a wave guide: (2) an optical fiber array; (3) at least oneelement added adjacent to, on and/or in at least one of the electrodeand/or electrolyte to the cell reaction system which permits energy tobe radiated therefrom; (4) an electric field; (5) a magnetic field; (6)an acoustic field and/or (7) a transducer, etc.

32. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient,selective and economical process for replacing a known physical catalystin a cell reaction system comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst by conditioning a conditionable participant to form acatalytic spectral pattern in the conditioned participant;

applying to the cell reaction system the conditioned participant; and,

applying or introducing at least one additional spectral energy patternwhich forms an applied spectral energy pattern when combined with saidcatalytic spectral pattern of the conditioned participant.

33. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to replace aphysical catalyst in a cell reaction system comprising the steps of:

determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physicalcatalyst;

duplicating at least one frequency of the electromagnetic spectralpattern of the physical catalyst by conditioning a conditionableparticipant with at least one electromagnetic energy emitter source toform a catalytic spectral pattern in the conditioned participant;

applying or introducing to the cell reaction system the conditionedparticipant; and

applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern to form anapplied spectral energy pattern, said applied spectral energy patternbeing applied at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration tocatalyze the formation of at least one reaction product in the cellreaction system.

34. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a spectral catalyst byaugmenting a physical catalyst comprising the steps of:

duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst (e.g., at least one frequency of a spectral pattern of thephysical catalyst) by conditioning a conditionable participant with atleast one electromagnetic energy emitter source to form a catalyticspectral pattern in the conditioned participant;

applying or introducing to the cell reaction system, the conditionedparticipant; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying said conditioned participant to the cell reaction system.

35. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant byaugmenting a physical catalyst comprising the steps of:

applying or introducing at least one conditioned participant to the cellreaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying the conditioned participant to the cell reaction system.

36. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant anda spectral energy catalyst by augmenting a physical catalyst comprisingthe steps of:

applying or introducing at least one conditioned participant to the cellreaction system;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze the cellreaction system; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system.

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying the conditioned participant and/or the spectral energy catalystto the cell reaction system. Moreover, the conditioned participant andspectral energy catalyst may be applied simultaneously to form anapplied spectral energy pattern or they may be applied sequentiallyeither at the same time or at different times from when the physicalcatalyst is introduced into the cell reaction system.

37. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand/or direct a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant anda spectral energy catalyst and a spectral environmental reactioncondition, with or without a physical catalyst, comprising the steps of:

applying or introducing at least one conditioned participant to the cellreaction system;

applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensityand for a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;

applying at last one spectral environmental reaction condition at asufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze areaction pathway, whereby when any of said at least one conditionedparticipant, said at least one spectral energy catalyst and/or at leastone spectral environmental reaction condition are applied at the sametime, they form an applied spectral energy pattern; and

introducing the physical catalyst into the cell reaction system (e.g.,into and/or onto at least a portion of the anode and/or cathode and/orelectrolyte).

The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalystinto the cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/or afterapplying any one of, or any combination of, the conditioned participantand/or the spectral energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmentalreaction condition to the cell reaction system. Likewise, theconditioned participant and/or the spectral energy catalyst and/or thespectral environmental reaction condition can be provided sequentiallyor continuously.

38. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to conditiona conditionable participant with an applied spectral energy conditioningpattern and/or a spectral energy conditioning catalyst comprising thesteps of:

applying at least one applied spectral energy conditioning pattern at asufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to condition theconditionable participant, whereby said at least one applied spectralenergy conditioning pattern comprises at least one member selected fromthe group consisting of catalytic spectral energy conditioning pattern,catalytic spectral conditioning pattern, spectral conditioning catalyst,spectral energy conditioning catalyst, spectral energy conditioningpattern, spectral conditioning environmental reaction condition andspectral conditioning pattern.

The above method may be combined with introducing an applied spectralenergy pattern into a cell reaction system before, and/or during, and/orafter introducing a conditioned participant into the cell reactionsystem. Moreover, the conditioned participant and the applied spectralenergy pattern can be provided sequentially or continuously. If appliedcontinuously, a new applied spectral energy pattern is formed.

The above method may also comprise conditioning the conditionableparticipant in a conditioning reaction vessel and/or in a reactionvessel. If the conditionable participant is first conditioned in areaction vessel, the conditioning occurs prior to some or all othercomponents comprising the cell reaction system being introduced into thecell reaction system.

Further, the reaction vessel and/or conditioning reaction vessel per semay be treated with conditioning energy. In the case of the reactionvessel being treated with conditioning energy, such conditioningtreatment occurs prior to some or all other components comprising thecell reaction system being introduced into the reaction vessel.

39. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affectand direct a cell reaction system with a conditioned participantcomprising the steps of:

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for startingreactant(s) in said cell reaction system;

determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for reactionproduct(s) in said cell reaction system;

calculating an additive spectral energy pattern (e.g., at least oneelectromagnetic frequency) from said reactant(s) and reaction product(s)spectral energy patterns to determine a required conditioned participant(e.g., a spectral conditioned catalyst);

generating at least a portion of the required spectral energyconditioning catalyst (e.g., at least one electromagnetic frequency ofthe required spectral conditioning catalyst); and

applying to the conditionable participant (e.g., irradiating withelectromagnetic energy) said at least a portion of the required spectralenergy conditioning catalyst (e.g., spectral conditioning catalyst) toform desired conditioned participant; and

introducing the conditioned participant to the cell reaction system toform a desired reaction product and/or desired reaction product at adesired reaction rate.

40. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect anddirect a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant comprisingthe steps of:

targeting at least one conditionable participant in said conditioningreaction system with at least one spectral conditioning pattern to causethe formation and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least oneconditioned participant to result in at least one desired reactionproduct in said cell reaction system; and

applying or introducing the conditioned participant to the reactionsystem to result in at least one desired reaction product and/or adesired or controlled reaction rate in said cell reaction system.

41. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant toresult in at least one reaction product and/or at least one desiredreaction rate comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy conditioning pattern for asufficient time and at a sufficient intensity to cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one conditionedparticipant, so as to result in desired reaction product(s) at a desiredreaction rate when said conditioned participant communicates with saidcell reaction system.

42. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect anddirect a cell reaction system with a conditioned participant and atleast one spectral environmental reaction condition comprising the stepsof:

applying or introducing at least one conditioned participant to the cellreaction system; and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition to saidcell reaction system to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/orstabilization of at least one transient and/or at least one intermediateto permit desired reaction product(s) to form.

43. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for forming aconditioned participant with a spectral energy conditioning pattern toresult in at least one conditioned participant comprising:

applying at least one frequency (e.g., electromagnetic) whichheterodynes with at least one conditionable participant frequency tocause the formation of and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of atleast one conditioned participant.

44. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for forming aconditioned participant with at least one spectral energy conditioningpattern resulting in at least one conditioned participant comprising:

applying a sufficient number of frequencies (e.g., electromagnetic)and/or fields (e.g., electric and/or magnetic) to result in an appliedspectral energy conditioning pattern which results in the formation ofat least one conditioned participant.

45. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for forming aconditioned participant with a spectral energy conditioning catalystresulting in at least one conditioned participant comprising:

conditioning targeting at least one conditionable participant prior tobeing introduced to said cell reaction system with at least onefrequency and/or field to form a conditioned participant, wherebyformation of said at least one conditioned participant results in theformation of at least one transient and/or at least one intermediatewhen said conditioned participant is introduced into said cell reactionsystem.

46. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a conditioned participantresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

conditioning targeting at least one spectral energy conditioningcatalyst to form at least one conditioned participant (e.g., at leastone spectral energy catalyst) which is present in said cell reactionsystem when at least one reaction in said cell reaction system isinitiated, such that at least one transient and/or at least oneintermediate, and/or at least one reaction product is formed in the cellreaction system.

47. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a cell reaction system along a desired reaction pathwaycomprising:

applying at least one conditioning targeting approach to at least oneconditionable participant, said at least one conditioning targetingapproach being selected from the group of approaches consisting ofdirect resonance conditioning targeting, harmonic conditioning targetingand non-harmonic heterodyne conditioning targeting.

In this regard, these conditioning targeting approaches can result inthe formation of a conditioned participant which can cause the formationand/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/orat least one intermediate to result in desired reaction product(s) at adesired reaction rate.

48. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forconditioning at least one conditionable participant comprising:

applying at least one conditioning frequency to at least oneconditionable participant to cause the formation and/or stimulationand/or stabilization of at least one conditioned participant, wherebysaid at least one frequency comprises at least one frequency selectedfrom the group consisting of direct resonance conditioning frequencies,harmonic resonance conditioning frequencies, non-harmonic heterodyneconditioning resonance frequencies, electronic conditioning frequencies,vibrational conditioning frequencies, rotational conditioningfrequencies, rotational-vibrational conditioning frequencies, finesplitting conditioning frequencies, hyperfine splitting conditioningfrequencies, electric field splitting conditioning frequencies, magneticfield splitting conditioning frequencies, cyclotron resonanceconditioning frequencies, orbital conditioning frequencies and nuclearconditioning frequencies.

In this regard, the applied conditioning frequencies can include anydesirable conditioning frequency or combination of conditioningfrequencies which resonates directly, harmonically or by a non-harmonicheterodyne technique, with at least one conditionable participant and/orat least one component of said conditionable participant.

49. It is another object of the invention to provide a method fordirecting a cell reaction system along a desired reaction pathway with aconditioned participant comprising:

applying at least one conditioning frequency and/or conditioning fieldto cause the conditioned spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectralconditioning pattern) of at least one conditioned participant to atleast partially overlap with the spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectralpattern) of at least one participant and/or at least one other componentin said cell reaction system to permit the transfer of energy betweensaid conditioned participant and said participant and/or othercomponents.

50. It is another object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a conditioned participantresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one spectral energy conditioning pattern to at leastone conditionable participant to cause the conditioned spectral energypattern of at least one conditioned participant in said cell reactionsystem to at least partially overlap with a spectral energy pattern ofat least one other participant and/or component in said cell reactionsystem to permit the transfer of energy between the said conditionedparticipant and said participant and/or components, thereby causing theformation of said at least one reaction product.

51. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method forcatalyzing a cell reaction system with a conditioned participantresulting in at least one reaction product comprising:

applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause a conditionedspectral energy pattern (e.g., conditioned spectral pattern) broadeningof said conditioned participant to cause a transfer of energy to occurbetween the conditioned participant and at least one participant in thecell reaction system, resulting in transformation (e.g., chemically,physically, phase or otherwise) of at least one participant and/or atleast one component in said cell reaction system.

In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction productwhich is of a different chemical composition and/or different physicalcomposition and/or phases than any of the chemical and/or physicalcompositions and/or phases of any starting reactant and/or conditionedparticipant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion ofa reactant into a reaction product.

52. Another object of the invention is to provide a method forcontrolling a reaction and/or directing a reaction pathway by utilizingat least one conditioned participant and at least one spectralenvironmental reaction condition, comprising:

forming a cell reaction system comprising said conditioned participant;and

applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition todirect said cell reaction system along a desired reaction pathway.

In this regard, the applied spectral environmental reaction conditioncan be used alone or in combination with other environmental reactionconditions to achieve desired results. Further, additional spectralenergy patterns may also be applied, simultaneously and/or continuouslywith said spectral environmental reaction condition.

53. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for designinga conditionable participant to be used as a catalyst, once conditioned,in a cell reaction system where no catalyst previously existed (e.g., aphysical catalyst and/or spectral energy catalyst), to be used in a cellreaction system, comprising:

determining a required spectral pattern to obtain a desired reactionand/or desired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate; and

designing a conditionable participant (e.g., material or combination ofmaterials), that exhibit(s) a conditioned spectral pattern thatapproximates the required spectral pattern, when exposed to a suitablespectral energy conditioning pattern.

In this regard, the designed conditionable participant may comprise aphysical admixing of one or more materials and/or more materials thathave been combined by an appropriate reaction, such as a chemicalreaction. The designed conditionable participant material may beenhanced in function by one or more spectral energy conditioningpatterns that may also be applied to the conditioning reaction system.Moreover, the application of different spectral energy conditioningpatterns may cause the designed conditionable material, onceconditioned, to behave in different manners in a cell reaction system,such as, for example, encouraging a first reaction pathway in a cellreaction system with the application of a first spectral energyconditioning pattern in a conditioning reaction system and encouraging asecond reaction pathway with the application of a second spectral energyconditioning pattern in a cell reaction system. Likewise, the changingof one or more environmental conditioning reaction conditions could havea similar effect.

Further, this designed conditionable participant or material hasapplications in all types of cell reaction systems including, but notlimited to, chemical (organic and inorganic), biological, physical, etc.

54. It should be understood that in each of 29-53 Objects of theInvention, that cell reaction systems also include preventing certainreaction phenomena from occurring, when desirable.

55. Another object of the invention is to use at least one conditionedparticipant with each of the techniques set forth in Objects 1-28 above;and to use at least one additional spectral energy pattern with each ofthe techniques set forth in Objects 29-54 above.

In each of the above-mentioned 55 Objects of the Invention, theparticular energy or energies can be applied by at least one of thefollowing techniques: (1) a waveguide; (2) an optical fiber array; (3)at least one element added adjacent to, on and/or in at least one of theelectrode and/or electrolyte which permits energy to be radiatedtherefrom; and/or a transducer, etc.

While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation ofoperation, it is believed that when frequencies match, energy transfers.The transfer of energy can be a sharing of energy between two entitiesand, for example, a transfer of energy from one entity into anotherentity. The entities may both be, for example, matter, or one entity maybe matter and the other energy (e.g. energy may be a spectral energypattern such as electromagnetic frequencies, and/or an electric fieldand/or a magnetic field). Reactions and transformations of matter may becontrolled and directed, by controlling the resonant exchange of energywithin a holoreaction system.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1 a and 1 b show a graphic representation of an acoustic orelectromagnetic wave.

FIG. 1 c shows the combination wave which results from the combining ofthe waves in FIG. 1 a and FIG. 1 b.

FIGS. 2 a and 2 b show waves of different amplitudes but the samefrequency. FIG. 2 a shows a low amplitude wave and FIG. 2 b shows a highamplitude wave.

FIGS. 3 a and 3 b show frequency diagrams. FIG. 3 a shows a time vs.amplitude plot and FIG. 3 b shows a frequency vs. amplitude plot.

FIG. 4 shows a specific example of a heterodyne progression.

FIG. 5 shows a graphical example of the heterodyned series from FIG. 4.

FIGS. 6 a, 6 b, 6 c, and 6 d, show fractal diagrams.

FIGS. 7 a and 7 b show hydrogen energy level diagrams.

FIGS. 8 a-8 c show three different simple reaction profiles.

FIGS. 9 a and 9 b show fine frequency diagram curves for hydrogen.

FIG. 10 shows various frequencies and intensities for hydrogen.

FIGS. 11 a and 11 b show two light amplification diagrams withstimulated emission/population inversions.

FIG. 12 shows a resonance curve where the resonance frequency is f_(o),an upper frequency=f₂ and a lower frequency=f₁, wherein f₁ and f₂ are atabout 50% of the amplitude of f_(o).

FIGS. 13 a and 13 b show two different resonance curves having differentquality factors. FIG. 13 a shows a narrow resonance curve with a high Qand FIG. 13 b shows a broad resonance curve with a low Q.

FIG. 14 shows two different energy transfer curves at fundamentalresonance frequencies (curve A) and a harmonic frequency (curve B).

FIGS. 15 a-c show how a spectral pattern varies at three differenttemperatures. FIG. 15 a is at a low temperature, FIG. 15 b is at amoderate temperature and FIG. 15 c is at a high temperature.

FIG. 16 is spectral curve showing a line width which corresponds tof₂−f₁.

FIGS. 17 a and 17 b show two amplitude vs. frequency curves. FIG. 17 ashows distinct spectral curves at low temperature; and FIG. 17 b showsoverlapping of spectral curves at a higher temperature.

FIG. 18 a shows the influence of temperature on the resolution ofinfrared absorption spectra; FIG. 18 b shows blackbody radiation; andFIG. 18 c shows curves A and C at low temperature, and broadened curvesA and C* at higher temperature, with C* also shifted.

FIG. 19 shows spectral patterns which exhibit the effect of pressurebroadening on the compound NH₃.

FIG. 20 shows the theoretical shape of pressure-broadened lines at threedifferent pressures for a single compound.

FIGS. 21 a and 21 b are two graphs which show experimental confirmationof changes in spectral patterns at increased pressures. FIG. 21 acorresponds to a spectral pattern representing the absorption of watervapor in air and FIG. 21 b is a spectral pattern which corresponds tothe absorption of NH₃ at one atmosphere pressure.

FIG. 22 a shows a representation of radiation from a single atom andFIG. 22 b shows a representation of radiation from a group of atoms.

FIGS. 23 a-d show four different spectral curves, three of which exhibitself-absorption patterns. FIG. 23 a is a standard spectral curve notshowing any self-absorption; FIG. 23 b shows the shifting of resonantfrequency due to self absorption; FIG. 23 c shows a self-reversalspectral pattern due to self-absorption; and FIG. 23 d shows anattenuation example of a self-reversal spectral pattern.

FIG. 24 a shows an absorption spectra of alcohol and phthalic acid inhexane; FIG. 24 b shows an absorption spectra for the absorption ofiodine in alcohol and carbon tetrachloride; and FIG. 24 c shows theeffect of mixtures of alcohol and benzene on the solute phenylazophenol.

FIG. 25 a shows a tetrahedral unit representation of aluminum oxide andFIG. 25 b shows a representation of a tetrahedral unit for silicondioxide.

FIG. 26 a shows a truncated octahedron crystal structure for aluminum orsilicon combined with oxygen and FIG. 26 b shows a plurality oftruncated octahedrons joined together to represent zeolite. FIG. 26 cshows truncated octahedrons for zeolites “X” and “Y” which are joinedtogether by oxygen bridges.

FIG. 27 is a graph which shows the influence of copper and bismuth onzinc/cadmium line ratios.

FIG. 28 is a graph which shows the influence of magnesium oncopper/aluminum intensity ratio.

FIG. 29 shows the concentration effects on the atomic spectrafrequencies of N-methyl urethane in carbon tetrachloride solutions atthe following concentrations: a) 0.01M; b) 0.03M; c) 0.06M; d) 0.10M; 3)0.15M.

FIGS. 30 a and 30 b show plots corresponding to the emission spectrum ofhydrogen. Specifically, FIG. 30 a corresponds to Balmer Series 2 forhydrogen; and FIG. 30 b corresponds to emission spectrum for the 456 THzfrequency of hydrogen.

FIG. 31 corresponds to a high resolution laser saturation spectrum forthe 456 THz frequency of hydrogen.

FIG. 32 shows fine splitting frequencies which exist under a typicalspectral curve.

FIG. 33 corresponds to a diagram of atomic electron levels (n) in finestructure frequencies (α).

FIG. 34 shows fine structures of the n=1 and n=2 levels of a hydrogenatom.

FIG. 35 shows multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels ofcarbon, oxygen and fluorine: 43.5 cm=1.3 THz; 16.4 cm⁻¹=490 GHz; 226.5cm⁻¹=6.77 THz; 158.5 cm⁻¹=4.74 THz; 404 cm⁻¹=12.1 THz.

FIG. 36 shows a vibration band of SF₆ at a wavelength of 10 μm².

FIG. 37 a shows a spectral pattern similar to that shown in FIG. 36,with a particular frequency magnified. FIG. 37 b shows fine structurefrequencies in greater detail for the compound SF₆.

FIG. 38 shows an energy level diagram which corresponds to differentenergy levels for a molecule where rotational corresponds to “J”,vibrational corresponds to “v” and electronic levels correspond to “n”.

FIGS. 39 a and 39 b correspond to pure rotational absorption spectrum ofgaseous hydrogen chloride as recorded with an interferometer; FIG. 39 bshows the same spectrum of FIG. 39 a at a lower resolution (i.e., notshowing any fine frequencies).

FIG. 40 corresponds to the rotational spectrum for hydrogen cyanide. “J”corresponds to the rotational level.

FIG. 41 shows a spectrum corresponding to the additive heterodyne of v₁and v₅ in the spectral band showing the frequency band at A (v₁-v₅),B=v₁−2v₅.

FIG. 42 shows a graphical representation of fine structure spectrumshowing the first four rotational frequencies for CO in the groundstate. The difference (heterodyne) between the molecular fine structurerotational frequencies is 2× the rotational constant B (i.e., f₂−f₁=2B).In this case, B=57.6 GHz (57,635.970 MHz).

FIG. 43 a shows rotational and vibrational frequencies (MHz) for LiF.FIG. 43 b shows differences between rotational and vibrationalfrequencies for LiF.

FIG. 44 shows the rotational transition J=1→2 for the triatomic moleculeOCS. The vibrational state is given by vibrational quantum numbers inbrackets (v₁, v₂, v₃), v₂ have a superscript [l]. In this case, l=1. Asubscript 1 is applied to the lower-frequency component of the l-typedoublet, and 2 to the higher-frequency components. The two lines at(01¹0) and (01¹0) are an l-type doublet, separated by q₁.

FIG. 45 shows the rotation-vibration band and fine structure frequenciesfor SF₆.

FIG. 46 shows a fine structure spectrum for SF₆ from zero to 300 beingmagnified.

FIGS. 47 a and 47 b show the magnification of two curves from finestructure of SF₆ showing hyperfine structure frequencies. Note theregular spacing of the hyperfine structure curves. FIG. 47 a showsmagnification of the curve marked with a single asterisk (*) in FIG. 46and FIG. 47 b shows the magnification of the curved marked with a doubleasterisk (**) in FIG. 46.

FIG. 48 shows an energy level diagram corresponding to the hyperfinesplitting for the hyperfine structure in the n=2 to n=3 transition forhydrogen.

FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine structure in the J=1→2 to rotationaltransition of CH₃I.

FIG. 50 shows the hyperfine structure of the J=1→2 transition for ClCNin the ground vibrational state.

FIG. 51 shows energy level diagrams and hyperfine frequencies for the NOmolecule.

FIG. 52 shows a spectrum corresponding to the hyperfine frequencies forNH₃.

FIG. 53 shows hyperfine structure and doubling of the NH₃ spectrum forrotational level J=3. The upper curves in FIG. 53 show experimentaldata, while the lower curves are derived from theoretical calculations.Frequency increases from left to right in 60 KHz intervals.

FIG. 54 shows a hyperfine structure and doubling of NH₃ spectrum forrotational level J=4. The upper curves in each of FIGS. 54 showexperimental data, while the lower curves are derived from theoreticalcalculations. Frequency increases from left to right in 60 KHzintervals.

FIG. 55 shows a Stark effect for potassium. In particular, the schematicdependence of the 4_(s) and 5_(p) energy levels on the electric field.

FIG. 56 shows a graph plotting the deviation from zero-field positionsof the 5p²P_(1/2)←4s²S_(1/2.3/2) transition wavenumbers against thesquare of the electric field.

FIG. 57 shows the frequency components of the J=0→1 rotationaltransition for CH₃Cl, as a function of field strength. Frequency isgiven in megacycles (MHz) and electric field strength (esu cm) is givenas the square of the field E², in esu²/cm².

FIG. 58 shows the theoretical and experimental measurements of Starkeffect in the J=1→2 transition of the molecule OCS. The unalteredabsolute rotational frequency is plotted at zero, and the frequencysplitting and shifting is denoted as MHz higher or lower than theoriginal frequency.

FIG. 59 shows patterns of Stark components for transitions in therotation of an asymmetric top molecule. Specifically, FIG. 59 a showsthe J=4→5 transitions; and FIG. 59 b shows the J=4→4 transitions. Theelectric field is large enough for complete spectral resolution.

FIG. 60 shows the Stark effect for the OCS molecule on the J=1→2transition with applied electric fields at various frequencies. The “a”curve represents the Stark effect with a static DC electric field; the“b” curve represents broadening and blurring of the Stark frequencieswith a 1 KHz electric field; and the “c” curve represents normal Starktype effect with electric field of 1,200 KHz.

FIG. 61 a shows a construction of a Stark waveguide and FIG. 61 b showsa distribution of fields in the Starck waveguide.

FIG. 62 a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium “D” lines; and FIG. 62 bshows the energy level diagram for transitions in the Zeeman effect forsodium “D” lines.

FIG. 63 is a graph which shows the splitting of the ground term of theoxygen atom as a function of magnetic field.

FIG. 64 is a graphic which shows the dependence of the Zeeman effect onmagnetic field strength for the “3P” state of silicon.

FIG. 65 a is a pictorial which shows a normal Zeeman effect and FIG. 65b is a pictorial which shows an anomolous Zeeman effect.

FIG. 66 shows anomalous Zeeman effect for zinc ³P→³S.

FIG. 67 a shows a graphic representation of four Zeeman splittingfrequencies and FIG. 67 b shows a graphic representation of four newheterodyned differences.

FIGS. 68 a and 68 b show graphs of typical Zeeman splitting patterns fortwo different transitions in a paramagnetic molecule.

FIG. 69 a-69 f show the frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontallyacross the Table; and the frequencies of platinum listed vertically onthe Table.

FIG. 70 shows a schematic of the experimental set-up which correspondsto a Bunsen burner heating a solution of sodium chloride and water on ahot plate, which is discussed in Example 12a.

FIG. 71 shows a schematic of the experimental set-up which correspondsto a Bunsen burner heating a solution of sodium chloride and water on ahot plate, and a sodium lamp emitting an electromagnetic spectralpattern into the side of a beaker, which is discussed in Example 12b.

FIG. 72 shows a schematic of the experimental set-up which correspondsto a sodium lamp heating a solution of sodium chloride and water fromthe bottom of a beaker, which is discussed in Example 12c.

FIG. 73 shows a schematic of the pH electrode 109 used with the AccumetAR20 meter 107.

FIG. 74 a is a graph of the experimental data which shows pH as afunction of time and corresponds to the experimental set-up of Example12a.

FIG. 74 b is a graph of the experimental data which shows pH as afunction of time and corresponds to the experimental set-up of Example12b.

FIG. 74 c is a graph of the experimental data which shows pH as afunction of time and corresponds to the experimental set-up of Example12c.

FIG. 74 d is a graph which shows the averages of the three (3) differentexperimental conditions of experiments 12 a, 12 b and 12 c, allsuperimposed on a single plot.

FIG. 74 e is a graph of the experimental data which shows pH as afunction of time and corresponds to the experimental set-up of Example12d.

FIG. 74 f is a graph of the experimental data which shows pH as afunction of time and corresponds to the experimental set-up of Example12e.

FIG. 74 g is a graph which shows the averages of the three (3) differentexperimental conditions of experiments 12 a, 12 b and 12 e, allsuperimposed on a single plot.

FIG. 74 h is a graph which shows the results of three (3) separateexperiments (#'s 3, 4 and 5) and represent decay curves generated by theexperimental apparatus shown in FIG. 71.

FIG. 74 i is a graph which shows the results of three (3) separateexperiments (#'s 1, 2 and 3) and represent activation curves generatedby the experimental apparatus shown in FIG. 71.

FIG. 74 j is a graph which shows pH as a function of time for two setsof experiments where sodium chloride solid was conditioned prior tobeing dissolved in water.

FIG. 75 a is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of Bunsen burner-onlydata.

FIG. 75 b is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only) for Bunsenburner-only data.

FIG. 75 c is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of Bunsen burner-onlydata, the plot beginning with the data point generated two minutes aftersodium chloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 d is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp for about 40 minutesbefore the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 e is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only),corresponding to the water being conditioned by the sodium lamp forabout 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 f is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp for about 40 minutesbefore the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 g is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe solution of sodium chloride and water being irradiated with aspectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginning when the sodiumchloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 h is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only)corresponding to the solution of sodium chloride and water beingirradiated with a spectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginningwhen the sodium chloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 i is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe solution of sodium chloride and water being irradiated with aspectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginning when the sodiumchloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 j is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp spectral conditioningpattern for about 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was added to thewater; and continually irradiating the water with the sodium lightspectral pattern while sodium chloride is added thereto and remaining onwhile all conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 k is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only) for threesets of data, corresponding to the water being conditioned by the sodiumlamp spectral conditioning pattern for about 40 minutes before thesodium chloride was dissolved; and continually irradiating the waterwith the sodium light spectral pattern while sodium chloride is addedthereto and remaining on while all conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 l is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp spectral conditioningpattern for about 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was dissolved;and continually irradiating the water with the sodium light spectralpattern while sodium chloride is added thereto and remaining on whileall conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 m is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 a, 75 d, 75 g and 75 j.

FIG. 75 n is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 b, 75 e, 75 h and 75 k.

FIG. 75 o is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 c, 75 f, 75 i and 75 j.

FIG. 76 shows a schematic of a flashlight battery assembly used inExample 14.

FIG. 77 shows a schematic of a sodium light used in Example 14.

FIG. 78 shows a graph of the change in current as a function of time.

FIG. 79 shows a graph of the change in current as a function of time.

FIG. 80 shows the corrosion/non-corrosion on steel razor bladesaccording to Example 15.

FIG. 81 shows a schematic of the apparatus used in Example 15.

FIGS. 82 a and 82 b show a typical single polymer electrolyte membranefuel cell (“PEMFC”).

FIG. 83 shows a typical tubular solid oxide fuel cell (“SOFC”).

FIG. 84 shows a typical membrane/electrode assembly (“MEA”) for a PEMFC.

FIG. 85 shows a membrane/electrode assembly with backing layers and FIG.73 b shows an enlarged cross-sectional view of an MEA assembly withbacking layers.

FIGS. 86 a and 86 b show an enlarged and simplified cross-sectional viewof a portion of the assembly shown in FIG. 85.

FIG. 87 shows an exploded view of another PEMFC.

FIG. 88 shows a typical stack of PEM fuel cells.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In general, thermal energy is used to drive chemical reactions byapplying heat and increasing the temperature. The addition of heatincreases the kinetic (motion) energy of the chemical reactants. Areactant with more kinetic energy moves faster and farther, and is morelikely to take part in a chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise,by stirring and moving the chemicals, increases their kinetic energy andthus their reactivity. The addition of mechanical energy often increasestemperature, by increasing kinetic energy.

Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanicalwaves. Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increasethe kinetic energy of chemical reactants, and can also elevate theirtemperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM) energy consists of waves ofelectric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic energy may also increasethe kinetic energy and heat in cell reaction systems. It may energizeelectronic orbitals or vibrational motion in some reactions.

Both acoustic and electromagnetic energy may consist of waves. Thenumber of waves in a period of time can be counted. Waves are oftendrawn, as in FIG. 1 a. Usually, time is placed on the horizontal X-axis.The vertical Y-axis shows the strength or intensity of the wave. This isalso called the amplitude. A weak wave will be of weak intensity andwill have low amplitude (see FIG. 2 a). A strong wave will have highamplitude (see FIG. 2 b).

Traditionally, the number of waves per second is counted, to obtain thefrequency.Frequency=Number of waves/time=Waves/second=Hz.

Another name for “waves per second”, is “hertz” (abbreviated “Hz”).Frequency is drawn on wave diagrams by showing a different number ofwaves in a period of time (see FIG. 3 a which shows waves having afrequency of 2 Hz and 3 Hz). It is also drawn by placing frequencyitself, rather than time, on the X-axis (see FIG. 3 b which shows thesame 2 Hz and 3 Hz waves plotted differently).

Energy waves and frequency have some interesting properties, and mayinteract in some interesting ways. The manner in which wave energiesinteract, depends largely on the frequency. For example, when two wavesof energy interact, each having the same amplitude, but one at afrequency of 400 Hz and the other at 100 Hz, the waves will add theirfrequencies, to produce a new frequency of 500 Hz (i.e., the “sum”frequency). The frequency of the waves will also subtract to produce afrequency of 300 HZ (i.e., the “difference” frequency). All waveenergies typically add and subtract in this manner, and such adding andsubtracting is referred to as heterodyning. Common results ofheterodyning are familiar to most as harmonics in music.

There is a mathematical, as well as musical basis, to the harmonicsproduced by heterodyning. Consider, for example, a continuousprogression of heterodyned frequencies. As discussed above, beginningwith 400 Hz and 100 Hz, the sum frequency is 500 Hz and the differencefrequency is 300 Hz. If these frequencies are further heterodyned (addedand subtracted) then new frequencies of 800 (i.e., 500+300) and 200(i.e., 500−300) are obtained. The further heterodyning of 800 and 200results in 1,000 and 600 Hz as shown in FIG. 4.

A mathematical pattern begins to emerge. Both the sum and the differencecolumns contain alternating series of numbers that double with each setof heterodynes. In the sum column, 400 Hz, 800 Hz, and 1,600 Hz,alternates with 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 2000 Hz. The same sort of doublingphenomenon occurs in the difference column.

Heterodyning of frequencies is the natural process that occurs wheneverwaveform energies interact. Heterodyning results in patterns ofincreasing numbers that are mathematically derived. The number patternsare integer multiples of the original frequencies. These multiples arecalled harmonics. For example, 800 Hz and 1600 Hz are harmonics of 400Hz. In musical terms, 800 Hz is one octave above 400 Hz, and 1600 Hz istwo octaves higher. It is important to understand the mathematicalheterodyne basis for harmonics, which occurs in all waveform energies,and thus in all of nature.

The mathematics of frequencies is very important. Frequency heterodynesincrease mathematically in visual patterns (see FIG. 5). Mathematics hasa name for these visual patterns of FIG. 5. These patterns are calledfractals. A fractal is defined as a mathematical function which producesa series of self-similar patterns or numbers. Fractal patterns havespurred a great deal of interest historically because fractal patternsare found everywhere in nature. Fractals can be found in the patterningof large expanses of coastline, all the way down to microorganisms.Fractals are found in the behavior of organized insects and in thebehavior of fluids. The visual patterns produced by fractals are verydistinct and recognizable. A typical fractal pattern is shown in FIG. 6.

A heterodyne is a mathematical function, governed by mathematicalequations, just like a fractal. A heterodyne also produces self-similarpatterns of numbers, like a fractal. If graphed, a heterodyne seriesproduces the same familiar visual shape and form which is socharacteristic of fractals. It is interesting to compare the heterodyneseries in FIG. 5, with the fractal series in FIG. 6.

Heterodynes are fractals; the conclusion is inescapable. Heterodynes andfractals are both mathematical functions which produce a series ofself-similar patterns or numbers. Wave energies interact in heterodynepatterns. Thus, all wave energies interact as fractal patterns. Once itis understood that the fundamental process of interacting energies isitself a fractal process, it becomes easier to understand why so manycreatures and systems in nature also exhibit fractal patterns. Thefractal processes and patterns of nature are established at afundamental or basic level.

Accordingly, since energy interacts by heterodyning, matter should alsobe capable of interacting by a heterodyning process. All matter whetherin large or small forms, has what is called a natural oscillatoryfrequency. The natural oscillatory frequency (“NOF”) of an object, isthe frequency at which the object prefers to vibrate, once set inmotion. The NOF of an object is related to many factors including size,shape, dimension, and composition. The smaller an object is, the smallerthe distance it has to cover when it oscillates back and forth. Thesmaller the distance, the faster it can oscillate, and the higher itsNOF.

For example, consider a wire composed of metal atoms. The wire has anatural oscillatory frequency. The individual metal atoms also haveunique natural oscillatory frequencies. The NOF of the atoms and the NOFof the wire heterodyne by adding and subtracting, just the way energyheterodynes.NOF _(atom) +NOF _(wire)=Sum Frequency_(atom+wire)andNOF _(atom) −NOF _(wire)=Difference Frequency_(atom−wire)

If the wire is stimulated with the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire), thedifference frequency will heterodyne (add) with the NOF_(wire) toproduce NOF_(atom), (natural oscillatory frequency of the atom) and theatom will absorb with the energy, thereby becoming stimulated to ahigher energy level. Cirac and Zoeller reported this phenomenon in 1995,and they used a laser to generate the Difference Frequency.Difference Frequency_(atom−wire) +NOF _(wire) =NOF _(atom)

Matter heterodynes with matter in a manner similar to the way in whichwave energies heterodyne with other wave energies. This means thatmatter in its various states may also interact in fractal processes.This interaction of matter by fractal processes assists in explainingwhy so many creatures and systems in nature exhibit fractal processesand patterns. Matter, as well as energy, interacts by the mathematicalequations of heterodynes, to produce harmonics and fractal patterns.That is why there are fractals everywhere around us.

Thus, energy heterodynes with energy, and matter heterodynes withmatter. However, perhaps even more important is that matter canheterodyne with energy (and visa versa). In the metal wire discussionabove, the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire) in the experiment by Ciracand Zoeller was provided by a laser which used electromagnetic waveenergy at a frequency equal to the Difference Frequency_(atom−wire). Thematter in the wire, via its natural oscillatory frequency, heterodynedwith the electromagnetic wave energy frequency of the laser to producethe frequency of an individual atom of matter. This shows that energyand matter do heterodyne with each other.

In general, when energy encounters matter, one of three possibilitiesoccur. The energy either bounces off the matter (i.e., is reflectedenergy), passes through the matter (i.e., is transmitted energy), orinteracts and/or combines with the matter (e.g., is absorbed orheterodynes with the matter). If the energy heterodynes with the matter,new frequencies of energy and/or matter will be produced by mathematicalprocesses of sums and differences. If the frequency thus producedmatches an NOF of the matter, the energy will be, at least partially,absorbed, and the matter will be stimulated to, for example, a higherenergy level, (i.e., it possesses more energy). A crucial factor whichdetermines which of these three possibilities will happen is thefrequency of the energy compared to the frequency of the matter. If thefrequencies do not match, the energy will either be reflected, or willpass on through as transmitted energy. If the frequencies of the energyand the matter match either directly (e.g., are close to each other, asdiscussed in greater detail later herein), or match indirectly (e.g.,heterodynes), then the energy is capable of interacting and/or combiningwith the matter.

Another term often used for describing the matching of frequencies isresonance. In this invention, use of the term resonance will typicallymean that frequencies of matter and/or energy match. For example, if thefrequency of energy and the frequency of matter match, the energy andmatter are in resonance and the energy is capable of combining with thematter. Resonance, or frequency matching, is merely an aspect ofheterodyning that permits the coherent transfer and combination ofenergy with matter.

In the example above with the wire and atoms, resonance could have beencreated with the atom, by stimulating the atom with a laser frequencyexactly matching the NOF of the atom. In this case, the atom would beenergized with its own resonant frequency and the energy would betransferred to the atom directly. Alternatively, as was performed in theactual wire/laser experiment, resonance could also have been createdwith the atom by using the heterodyning that naturally occurs betweendiffering frequencies. Thus, the resonant frequency of the atom(NOF_(atom)) can be produced indirectly, as an additive (or subtractive)heterodyned frequency, between the resonant frequency of the wire(NOF_(wire)) and the applied frequency of the laser. Either directresonance, or indirect resonance through heterodyned frequency matching,produces resonance and thus permits the combining of matter and energy.When frequencies match, energy transfers and amplitudes may increase.

Heterodyning produces indirect resonance. Heterodyning also producesharmonics, (i.e., frequencies that are integer multiples of the resonant(NOF) frequency. For example, the music note “A” is approximately 440Hz. If that frequency is doubled to about 880 Hz, the note “A” is heardan octave higher. This first octave is called the first harmonic.Doubling the note or frequency again, from 880 Hz to 1,760 Hz (i.e.,four times the frequency of the original note) results in another “A”,two octaves above the original note. This is called the third harmonic.Every time the frequency is doubled another octave is achieved, so theseare the even integer multiples of the resonant frequency.

In between the first and third harmonic is the second harmonic, which isthree times the original note. Musically, this is not an octave like thefirst and third harmonics. It is an octave and a fifth, equal to thesecond “E” above the original “A”. All of the odd integer multiples arefifths, rather than octaves. Because harmonics are simply multiples ofthe fundamental natural oscillatory frequency, harmonics stimulate theNOF or resonant frequency indirectly. Thus by playing the high “A” at880 Hz on a piano, the string for middle “A” at 440 Hz should also beginto vibrate due to the phenomenon of harmonics.

Matter and energy in chemical reactions respond to harmonics of resonantfrequencies much the way musical instruments do. Thus, the resonantfrequency of the atom (NOF_(atom)) can be stimulated indirectly, usingone or more of its' harmonic frequencies. This is because the harmonicfrequency heterodynes with the resonant frequency of the atom itself(NOF_(atom)). For example, in the wire/atom example above, if the laseris tuned to 800 THz and the atom resonates at 400 THz, heterodyning thetwo frequencies results in:800 THz−400 THz=400 THz

The 800 THz (the atom's first harmonic), heterodynes with the resonantfrequency of the atom, to produce the atom's own resonant frequency.Thus the first harmonic indirectly resonates with the atom's NOF, andstimulates the atom's resonant frequency as a first generationheterodyne.

Of course, the two frequencies will also heterodyne in the otherdirection, producing:800 THz+400 THz=1,200 THz

The 1,200 THz frequency is not the resonant frequency of the atom. Thus,part of the energy of the laser will heterodyne to produce the resonantfrequency of the atom. The other part of the energy of the laserheterodynes to a different frequency, that does not itself stimulate theresonant frequency of the atom. That is why the stimulation of an objectby a harmonic frequency of particular strength of amplitude, istypically less than the stimulation by its' own resonant (NOF) frequencyat the same particular strength.

Although it appears that half the energy of a harmonic is wasted, thatis not necessarily the case. Referring again to the exemplary atomvibrating at 400 THz, exposing the atom to electromagnetic energyvibrating at 800 THz will result in frequencies subtracting and addingas follows:800 THz−400 THz=400 THzand800 THz+400 THz=1,200 THz

The 1,200 THz heterodyne, for which about 50% of the energy appears tobe wasted, will heterodyne with other frequencies also, such as 800 THz.Thus,1,200 THz−800 THz=400 THz

Also, the 1,200 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:1,200 THz−400 THz=800 THz,thus producing 800 THz, and the 800 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:800 THz−400 THz=400 THz,thus producing 400 THz frequency again. When other generations ofheterodynes of the seemingly wasted energy are taken into consideration,the amount of energy transferred by a first harmonic frequency is muchgreater than the previously suggested 50% transfer of energy. There isnot as much energy transferred by this approach when compared to directresonance, but this energy transfer is sufficient to produce a desiredeffect (see FIG. 14).

As stated previously, Ostwald's theories on catalysts and bond formationwere based on the kinetic theories of chemistry from the turn of thecentury. However, it should now be understood that chemical reactionsare interactions of matter, and that matter interacts with other matterthrough resonance and heterodyning of frequencies; and energy can justas easily interact with matter through a similar processes of resonanceand heterodyning. With the advent of spectroscopy (discussed in moredetail elsewhere herein), it is evident that matter produces, forexample, electromagnetic energy at the same or substantially the samefrequencies at which it vibrates. Energy and matter can move about andrecombine with other energy or matter, as long as their frequenciesmatch, because when frequencies match, energy transfers. In manyrespects, both philosophically and mathematically, both matter andenergy can be fundamentally construed as corresponding to frequency.Accordingly, since chemical reactions are recombinations of matterdriven by energy, chemical reactions are in effect, driven just as muchby frequency.

Analysis of a typical chemical reaction should be helpful inunderstanding the normal processes disclosed herein. A representativereaction to examine is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygengases, catalyzed by platinum. Platinum has been known for some time tobe a good hydrogen catalyst, although the reason for this has not beenwell understood.

This reaction is proposed to be a chain reaction, depending on thegeneration and stabilization of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates.The proposed reaction chain is:

Generation of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates are thought to becrucial to this reaction chain. Under normal circumstances, hydrogen andoxygen gas can be mixed together for an indefinite amount of time, andthey will not form water. Whenever the occasional hydrogen moleculesplits apart, the hydrogen atoms do not have adequate energy to bondwith an oxygen molecule to form water. The hydrogen atoms are veryshort-lived as they simply re-bond again to form a hydrogen molecule.Exactly how platinum catalyzes this reaction chain is a mystery to theprior art.

The present invention teaches that an important step to catalyzing thisreaction is the understanding now provided that it is crucial not onlyto generate the intermediates, but also to energize and/or stabilize(i.e., maintain the intermediates for a longer time), so that theintermediates have sufficient energy to, for example, react with othercomponents in the reaction system. In the case of platinum, theintermediates react with the reactants to form product and moreintermediates (i.e., by generating, energizing and stabilizing thehydrogen intermediate, it has sufficient energy to react with themolecular oxygen reactant, forming water and the hydroxy intermediate,instead of falling back into a hydrogen molecule). Moreover, byenergizing and stabilizing the hydroxy intermediates, the hydroxyintermediates can react with more reactant hydrogen molecules, and againwater and more intermediates result from this chain reaction. Thus,generating energizing and/or stabilizing the intermediates, influencesthis reaction pathway. Paralleling nature in this regard would bedesirable (e.g., nature can be paralleled by increasing the energylevels of the intermediates). Specifically, desirable, intermediates canbe energized and/or stabilized by applying at least one appropriateelectromagnetic frequency resonant with the intermediate, therebystimulating the intermediate to a higher energy level. Interestingly,that is what platinum does (e.g., various platinum frequencies resonatewith the intermediates on the reaction pathway for water formation).Moreover, in the process of energizing and stabilizing the reactionintermediates, platinum fosters the generation of more intermediates,which allows the reaction chain to continue, and thus catalyzes thereaction. This information is vital to the specific electrochemicalreactions that occur at, near and/or within the anode and cathode in,for example, PEMFC's which utilize hydrogen as a fuel. For example, theelectrochemical reaction which occurs at the cathode in a PEMFC is knownto be much slower than the electrochemical reaction that occurs at theanode (e.g., the cathode half-reaction can be 100 times slower than theanode half-reaction). Accordingly, by increasing the rate of reaction atonly the cathode, a PEMFC could function much more efficiently, thusmaking PEMFC's more viable technically and economically.

As a catalyst, platinum takes advantage of many of the ways thatfrequencies interact with each other. Specifically, frequencies interactand resonate with each other: 1) directly, by matching a frequency; or2) indirectly, by matching a frequency through harmonics or heterodynes.In other words, platinum vibrates at frequencies which both directlymatch the natural oscillatory frequencies of the intermediates, andwhich indirectly match their frequencies, for example, by heterodyningharmonics with the intermediates.

Further, in addition to the specific intermediates of the reactiondiscussed above herein, it should be understood that in this reaction,like in all reactions, various transients or transient states alsoexist. In some cases, transients or transient states may only involvedifferent bond angles between similar chemical species or in other casestransients may involve completely different chemistries altogether. Inany event, it should be understood that numerous transient states existbetween any particular combination of reactant and reaction product.

It should now be understood that physical catalysts produce effects bygenerating, energizing and/or stabilizing all manner of transients, aswell as intermediates. In this regard, FIG. 8 a shows a single reactantand a single product. The point “A” corresponds to the reactant and thepoint “B” corresponds to the reaction product. The point “C” correspondsto an activated complex. Transients correspond to all those points onthe curve between reactant “A” and product “B”, and can also include theactivated complex “C”.

In a more complex reaction which involves formation of at least oneintermediate, the reaction profile looks somewhat different. In thisregard, reference is made to FIG. 8 b, which shows reactant “A”, product“B”, activated complex “C′ and C″, and intermediate “D”. In thisparticular example, the intermediate “D” exists as a minimum in theenergy reaction profile of the reaction, while it is surrounded by theactivated complexes C′ and C″. However, again, in this particularreaction, transients correspond to anything between the reactant “A” andthe reaction product “B”, which in this particular example, includes thetwo activated complexes “C′” and “C″,” as well as the intermediate “D”.In the particular example of hydrogen and oxygen combining to formwater, the reaction profile is closer to that shown in FIG. 8 c. In thisparticular reaction profile, “D′” and “D″” could correspond generally tothe intermediates of the hydrogen atom and hydroxy molecule.

Now, with specific reference to the reaction to form water, bothintermediates are good examples of how platinum produces resonance in anintermediate by directly matching a frequency. Hydroxy intermediatesvibrate strongly at frequencies of 975 THz and 1,060 THz. Platinum alsovibrates at 975 THz and 1,060 THz. By directly matching the frequenciesof the hydroxy intermediates, platinum can cause resonance in hydroxyintermediates, enabling them to be energized, stimulated and/orstabilized long enough to take part in chemical reactions. Similarly,platinum also directly matches frequencies of the hydrogenintermediates. Platinum resonates with about 10 out of about 24 hydrogenfrequencies in its electronic spectrum (see FIG. 69). Specifically, FIG.69 shows the frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontally across theTable and the frequencies of platinum listed vertically on the Table.Thus, by directly resonating with the intermediates in theabove-described reaction, platinum facilitates the generation,energizing, stimulating, and/or stabilizing of the intermediates,thereby catalyzing the desired reaction.

Platinum's interactions with hydrogen are also a good example ofmatching frequencies through heterodyning. It is disclosed herein, andshown clearly in FIG. 69, that many of the platinum frequencies resonateindirectly as harmonics with the hydrogen atom intermediate (e.g.,harmonic heterodynes). Specifically, fifty-six (56) frequencies ofplatinum (i.e., 33% of all its frequencies) are harmonics of nineteen(19) hydrogen frequencies (i.e., 80% of its 24 frequencies). Fourteen(14) platinum frequencies are first harmonics (2×) of seven (7) hydrogenfrequencies. And, twelve (12) platinum frequencies are third harmonics(4×) of four (4) hydrogen frequencies. Thus, the presence of platinumcauses massive indirect harmonic resonance in the hydrogen atom, as wellas significant direct resonance.

Further focus on the individual hydrogen frequencies is even moreinformative. FIGS. 9-10 show a different picture of what hydrogen lookslike when the same information used to make energy level diagrams isplotted as actual frequencies and intensities instead. Specifically, theX-axis shows the frequencies emitted and absorbed by hydrogen, while theY-axis shows the relative intensity for each frequency. The frequenciesare plotted in terahertz (THz, 10¹² Hz) and are rounded to the nearestTHz. The intensities are plotted on a relative scale of 1 to 1,000. Thehighest intensity frequency that hydrogen atoms produce is 2,466 THz.This is the peak of curve I to the far right in FIG. 9 a. This curve Ishall be referred to as the first curve. Curve I sweeps down and to theright, from 2,466 THz at a relative intensity of 1,000 to 3,237 THz at arelative intensity of only about 15.

The second curve in FIG. 9 a, curve II, starts at 456 THz with arelative intensity of about 300 and sweeps down and to the right. Itends at a frequency of 781 THz with a relative intensity of five (5).Every curve in hydrogen has this same downward sweep to the right.Progressing from right to left in FIG. 9, the curves are numbered Ithrough V; going from high to low frequency and from high to lowintensity.

The hydrogen frequency chart shown in FIG. 10 appears to be much simplerthan the energy level diagrams. It is thus easier to visualize how thefrequencies are organized into the different curves shown in FIG. 9. Infact, there is one curve for each of the series described by Rydberg.Curve “I” contains the frequencies in the Lyman series, originating fromwhat quantum mechanics refers to as the first energy level. The secondcurve from the right, curve “II”, equates to the second energy level,and so on.

The curves in the hydrogen frequency chart of FIG. 9 are composed ofsums and differences (i.e., they are heterodyned). For example, thesmallest curve at the far left, labeled curve “V”, has two frequenciesshown, namely 40 THz and 64 THz, with relative intensities of six (6)and four (4), respectively (see also FIG. 10). The next curve, IV,begins at 74 THz, proceeds to 114 THz and ends with 138 THz. The summedheterodyne calculations are thus:40+74=11464+74+138.

The frequencies in curve IV are the sum of the frequencies in curve Vplus the peak intensity frequency in curve IV.

Alternatively, the frequencies in curve IV, minus the frequencies incurve V, yield the peak of curve IV:114−40=74138−64=74.

This is not just a coincidental set of sums or differences in curves IVand V. Every curve in hydrogen is the result of adding each frequency inany one curve, with the highest intensity frequency in the next curve.

These hydrogen frequencies are found in both the atom itself, and in theelectromagnetic energy it radiates. The frequencies of the atom and itsenergy, add and subtract in regular fashion. This is heterodyning. Thus,not only matter and energy heterodyne interchangeably, but matterheterodynes its' own energy within itself.

Moreover, the highest intensity frequencies in each curve areheterodynes of heterodynes. For example, the peak frequency in Curve Iof FIG. 9 is 2,466 THz, which is the third harmonic of 616 THz;4×616 THz=2,466 THz.

Thus, 2,466 THz is the third harmonic of 616 THz (Recall that forheterodyned harmonics, the result is even multiples of the startingfrequency, i.e., for the first harmonic 2× the original frequency andthe third harmonic is 4× the original frequency. Multiplying a frequencyby four (4) is a natural result of the heterodyning process.) Thus,2,466 THz is a fourth generation heterodyne, namely the third harmonicof 616 THz.

The peak of curve II of FIG. 9, a frequency corresponding to 456 THz, isthe third harmonic of 114 THz in curve IV. The peak of curve III,corresponding to a frequency of 160 THz, is the third harmonic of 40 THzin curve V. The peaks of the curves shown in FIG. 9 are not onlyheterodynes between the curves but are also harmonics of individualfrequencies which are themselves heterodynes. The whole hydrogenspectrum turns out to be an incestuously heterodyned set of frequenciesand harmonics. HCx

Theoretically, this heterodyne process could go on forever. For example,if 40 is the peak of a curve, that means the peak is four (4) times alower number, and it also means that the peak of the previous curve is24 (64−40=24). It is possible to mathematically extrapolate backwardsand downwards this way to derive lower and lower frequencies. Peaks ofsuccessive curves to the left are 24.2382, 15.732, and 10.786 THz, allgenerated from the heterodyne process. These frequencies are in completeagreement with the Rydberg formula for energy levels 6, 7 and 8,respectively. Not much attention has historically been given by theprior art to these lower frequencies and their heterodyning.

This invention teaches that the heterodyned frequency curves amplify thevibrations and energy of hydrogen. A low intensity frequency on curve IVor V has a very high intensity by the time it is heterodyned out tocurve I. In many respects, the hydrogen atom is just one big energyamplification system. Moving from low frequencies to high frequencies,(i.e., from curve V to curve I in FIG. 9), the intensities increasedramatically. By stimulating hydrogen with 2,466 THz at an intensity of1,000, the result will be 2,466 THz at 1,000 intensity. However, ifhydrogen is stimulated with 40 THz at an intensity of 1,000, by the timeit is amplified back out to curve I of FIG. 9, the result will be 2,466THz at an intensity of 167,000. This heterodyning turns out to have adirect bearing on platinum, and on how platinum interacts with hydrogen.It all has to do with hydrogen being an energy amplification system.That is why the lower frequency curves are perceived as being higherenergy levels. By understanding this process, the low frequencies of lowintensity suddenly become potentially very significant.

Platinum resonates with most, if not all, of the hydrogen frequencieswith one notable exception, the highest intensity curve at the far rightin the frequency chart of FIG. 9 (i.e., curve I) representing energylevel 1, and beginning with 2,466 THz. Platinum does not appear toresonate significantly with the ground state transition of the hydrogenatom. However, it does resonate with multiple upper energy levels oflower frequencies.

With this information, one ongoing mystery can be solved. Ever sincelasers were developed, the prior art chemists believed that there had tobe some way to catalyze a reaction using lasers. Standard approachesinvolved using the single highest intensity frequency of an atom (suchas 2,466 THz of hydrogen) because it was apparently believed that thehighest intensity frequency would result in the highest reactivity. Thisapproach was taken due to considering only the energy level diagrams.Accordingly, prior art lasers are typically tuned to a ground statetransition frequency. This use of lasers in the prior art has beenminimally successful for catalyzing chemical reactions. It is nowunderstood why this approach was not successful. Platinum, thequintessential hydrogen catalyst, does not resonate with the groundstate transition of hydrogen. It resonates with the upper energy levelfrequencies, in fact, many of the upper level frequencies. Withoutwishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation, this isprobably why platinum is such a good hydrogen catalyst.

Platinum resonates with multiple frequencies from the upper energylevels (i.e., the lower frequencies). There is a name given to theprocess of stimulating many upper energy levels, it is called a laser.

Einstein essentially worked out the statistics on lasers at the turn ofthe century when atoms at the ground energy level (E₁) are resonated toan excited energy level (E₂). Refer to the number of atoms in the groundstate as “N₁” and the number of excited atoms as “N₂”, with the total“N_(total)”. Since there are only two possible states that atoms canoccupy:N _(total) =N ₁ +N ₂.

After all the mathematics are performed, the relationship which evolvesis:

$\frac{N_{2}}{N_{total}} = {\frac{N_{2}}{N_{1} + N_{2}} < \frac{1}{2}}$

In a two level system, it is predicted that there will never by morethan 50% of the atoms in the higher energy level, E₂, at the same time.

If, however, the same group of atoms is energized at three (3) or moreenergy levels (i.e., a multi-level system), it is possible to obtainmore than 50% of the atoms energized above the first level. By referringto the ground and energized levels as E₁, E₂, and E₃, respectively, andthe numbers of atoms as N_(total), N₁, N₂, and N₃, under certaincircumstances, the number of atoms at an elevated energy level (N₃) canbe more than the number at a lower energy level (N₂). When this happens,it is referred to as a “population inversion”. Population inversionmeans that more of the atoms are at higher energy levels that at thelower energy levels.

Population inversion in lasers is important. Population inversion causesamplification of light energy. For example, in a two-level system, onephoton in results in one photon out. In a system with three (3) or moreenergy levels and population inversion, one photon in may result in 5,10, or 15 photons out (see FIG. 11). The amount of photons out dependson the number of levels and just how energized each level becomes. Alllasers are based on this simple concept of producing a populationinversion in a group of atoms, by creating a multi-level energizedsystem among the atoms. Lasers are simply devices to amplifyelectromagnetic wave energy (i.e., light). Laser is actually anabbreviation for Light Amplification System for Emitting Radiation.

By referring back to the interactions discussed herein between platinumand hydrogen, platinum energizes 19 upper level frequencies in hydrogen(i.e., 80% of the total hydrogen frequencies). But only threefrequencies are needed for a population inversion. Hydrogen isstimulated at 19. This is a clearly multi-level system. Moreover,consider that seventy platinum frequencies do the stimulating. Onaverage, every hydrogen frequency involved is stimulated by three orfour (i.e., 70/19) different platinum frequencies; both directlyresonant frequencies and/or indirectly resonant harmonic frequencies.Platinum provides ample stimulus, atom per atom, to produce a populationinversion in hydrogen. Finally, consider the fact that every time astimulated hydrogen atom emits some electromagnetic energy, that energyis of a frequency that matches and stimulates platinum in return.

Platinum and hydrogen both resonate with each other in their respectivemulti-level systems. Together, platinum and hydrogen form an atomicscale laser (i.e., an energy amplification system on the atomic level).In so doing, platinum and hydrogen amplify the energies that are neededto stabilize both the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates, thuscatalyzing the reaction pathway for the formation of water. Platinum issuch a good hydrogen catalyst because it forms a lasing system withhydrogen on the atomic level, thereby amplifying their respectiveenergies.

Further, this reaction hints that in order to catalyze a cell reactionsystem and/or control the reaction pathway in a cell reaction system itis possible for only a single transient and/or intermediate to be formedand/or energized by an applied frequency (e.g., a spectral catalyst) andthat by forming and/or stimulating at least one transient and/or atleast one intermediate that is required to follow for a desired reactionpathway (e.g., either a complex reaction or a simple reaction), then afrequency, or combination of frequencies, which result in such formationor stimulation of only one of such required transients and/orintermediates may be all that is required. Accordingly, the presentinvention recognizes that in some cell reaction systems, by determiningat least one required transient and/or intermediate, and by applying atleast one frequency which generates, energizes and/or stabilizes said atleast one transient and/or intermediate, then all other transientsand/or intermediates required for a reaction to proceed down a desiredreaction pathway may be self-generated. However, in some cases, thereaction could be increased in rate by applying the appropriatefrequency or spectral energy pattern, which directly stimulates alltransients and/or intermediates that are required in order for areaction to proceed down a desired reaction pathway. Accordingly,depending upon the particulars of any cell reaction system, it may bedesirable for a variety of reasons, including equipment, environmentalreaction conditions, etc., to provide or apply a frequency or spectralenergy pattern which results in the formation and/or stimulation and/orstabilization of any required transients and/or intermediates. Thus, inorder to determine an appropriate frequency or spectral energy pattern,it is first desirable to determine which transients and/or intermediatesare present in any reaction pathway. Similarly, a conditionedparticipant could be formulated to accomplish a similar task.

Specifically, once all known required transients and/or intermediatesare determined, then, one can determine experimentally or empiricallywhich transients and/or intermediates are essential to a reactionpathway and then determine, which transients and or intermediates can beself-generated by the stimulation and/or formation of a differenttransient or intermediate. Once such determinations are made,appropriate spectral energies (e.g., electromagnetic frequencies) canthen be applied to the cell reaction system to obtain the desirablereaction product and/or desirable reaction pathway.

It is known that an atom of platinum interacts with an atom of hydrogenand/or a hydroxy intermediate. And, that is exactly what modernchemistry has taught for the last one hundred years, based on Ostwald'stheory of catalysis. However, the prior art teaches that catalysts mustparticipate in the reaction by binding to the reactants, in other words,the prior art teaches a matter:matter bonding interaction is requiredfor physical catalysts. As previously stated, these reactions followthese steps:

1. Reactant diffusion to the catalyst site;

2. Bonding of reactant to the catalyst site;

3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;

4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and

5. Diffusion of the product away from the catalyst site.

However, according to the present invention, for example, energy:energyfrequencies can interact as well as energy: matter frequencies.Moreover, matter radiates energy, with the energy frequencies beingsubstantially the same as the matter frequencies. So platinum vibratesat the frequency of 1,060 THz, and it also radiates electromagneticenergy at 1,060 THz. Thus, according to the present invention, thedistinction between energy frequencies and matter frequencies starts tolook less important.

Resonance can be produced in, for example, the reaction intermediates bypermitting them to come into contact with additional matter vibrating atsubstantially the same frequencies, such as those frequencies of aplatinum atom (e.g., platinum stimulating the reaction between hydrogenand oxygen to form water). Alternatively, according to the presentinvention, resonance can be produced in the intermediates by introducingelectromagnetic energy corresponding to one or more platinum energies,which also vibrate at the same frequencies, thus at least partiallymimicking (an additional mechanism of platinum is resonance with the H₂molecule, a pathway reactant) the mechanism of action of a platinumcatalyst. Matter, or energy, it makes no difference as far as thefrequencies are concerned, because when the frequencies match, energytransfers. Thus, physical catalysts are not required. Rather, theapplication of at least a portion of the spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst may be sufficient (i.e. at least a portion of the catalyticspectral pattern). However, in another preferred embodiment,substantially all of a spectral pattern can be applied.

Still further, by understanding the catalyst mechanism of action,particular frequencies can be applied to, for example, one or morereactants in a reaction system and, for example, cause the appliedfrequencies to heterodyne with existing frequencies in the matter itselfto result in frequencies which correspond to one or more platinumcatalyst or other relevant spectral frequencies. For example, both thehydrogen atom and the hydrogen molecule have unique frequencies. Byheterodyning the frequencies a subtractive frequency can be determined:NOF _(H atom) −NOF _(H molecule)=Difference_(H atom−molecule)

The Difference_(H atom−molecule) frequency applied to the H₂ moleculereactant will heterodyne with the molecule and energize the individualhydrogen atoms as intermediates. Similarly, any reaction participant canserve as the heterodyning backboard for stimulation of anotherparticipant. For example,Difference_(H atom)−_(Oxygen molecule) +NOF _(oxygen molecule) =NOF_(H atom)orDifference_(OH−water) +NOF _(water) =NOF _(OH)

This approach enables greater flexibility for choice of appropriateequipment to apply appropriate frequencies. However, the key to thisapproach is understanding catalyst mechanisms of action and the reactionpathway so that appropriate choices for application of frequencies canbe made.

Specifically, whenever reference is made to, for example, a spectralcatalyst duplicating at least a portion of a physical catalyst'sspectral pattern, this reference is to all the different frequenciesproduced by a physical catalyst; including, but not necessarily limitedto, electronic, vibrational, rotational, and NOF frequencies. Tocatalyze, control, and/or direct a chemical reaction then, all that isneeded is to duplicate one or more frequencies from a physical catalyst,with, for example, an appropriate electromagnetic energy. The actualphysical presence of the catalyst is not necessary. A spectral catalystcan substantially completely replace a physical catalyst, if desired.

A spectral catalyst can also augment or promote the activity of aphysical catalyst. The exchange of energy at particular frequencies,between hydrogen, hydroxy, and platinum is primarily what drives theconversion to water. These participants interact and create a miniatureatomic scale lasing system that amplify their respective energies. Theaddition of these same energies to a cell reaction system, using aspectral catalyst, does the same thing. The spectral catalyst amplifiesthe participant energies by resonating with them and when frequenciesmatch, energy transfers and the chemicals (matter) can absorb theenergy. Thus, a spectral catalyst can augment a physical catalyst, aswell as replace it. In so doing, the spectral catalyst may increase thereaction rate, enhance specificity, and/or allow for the use of lessphysical catalyst.

FIG. 12 shows a basic bell-shaped curve produced by comparing how muchenergy an object absorbs, as compared to the frequency of the energy.This curve is called a resonance curve. As elsewhere herein stated, theenergy transfer between, for example, atoms or molecules, reaches amaximum at the resonant frequency (f_(o)). The farther away an appliedfrequency is from the resonant frequency, f_(o), the lower the energytransfer (e.g., matter to matter, energy to matter, etc.). At some pointthe energy transfer will fall to a value representing only about 50% ofthat at the resonant frequency f_(o). The frequency higher than theresonant frequency, at which energy transfer is only about 50% is called“f₂.” The frequency lower than the resonant frequency, at which about50% energy transfer occurs, is labeled “f₁.”

The resonant characteristics of different objects can be compared usingthe information from the simple exemplary resonance curve shown in FIG.12. One such useful characteristic is called the “resonance quality” or“Q” factor. To determine the resonance quality for an object thefollowing equation is utilized:

$Q = \frac{f_{0}}{\left( {f_{2} - f_{1}} \right)}$Accordingly, as shown from the equation, if the bell-shaped resonancecurve is tall and narrow, then (f₂−f₁) will be a very small number andQ, the resonance quality, will be high (see FIG. 13 a). An example of amaterial with a high “Q” is a high quality quartz crystal resonator. Ifthe resonance curve is low and broad, then the spread or differencebetween f₂ and f₁ will be relatively large. An example of a materialwith a low “Q” is a marshmallow. The dividing of the resonant frequencyby this large number will produce a much lower Q value (see FIG. 13 b).

Atoms and molecules, for example, have resonance curves which exhibitproperties similar to larger objects such as quartz crystals andmarshmallows. If the goal is to stimulate atoms in a reaction (e.g.,hydrogen in the reaction to produce water as mentioned previously) aprecise resonant frequency produced by a cell reaction system componentor environmental reaction condition (e.g., hydrogen) can be used. It isnot necessary to use the precise frequency, however. Use of a frequencythat is near a resonant frequency of, for example, one or more cellreaction system components or environmental reaction conditions isadequate. There will not be quite as much of an effect as using theexact resonant frequency, because less energy will be transferred, butthere will still be an effect. The closer the applied frequency is tothe resonant frequency, the more the effect. The farther away theapplied frequency is from the resonant frequency, the less effect thatis present (i.e., the less energy transfer that occurs).

Harmonics present a similar situation. As previously stated, harmonicsare created by the heterodyning (i.e., adding and subtracting) offrequencies, allowing the transfer of significant amounts of energy.Accordingly, for example, desirable results can be achieved in chemicalreactions if applied frequencies (e.g., at least a portion of a spectralcatalyst) are harmonics (i.e., matching heterodynes) with one or moreresonant frequency(ies) of one or more cell reaction system componentsor environmental reaction conditions.

Further, similar to applied frequencies being close to resonantfrequencies, applied frequencies which are close to the harmonicfrequency can also produce desirable results. The amplitude of theenergy transfer will be less relative to a harmonic frequency, but aneffect will still occur. For example, if the harmonic produces 70% ofthe amplitude of the fundamental resonant frequency and by using afrequency which is merely close to the harmonic, for example, about 90%on the harmonic's resonance curve, then the total effect will be 90% of70%, or about 63% total energy transfer in comparison to a directresonant frequency. Accordingly, according to the present invention,when at least a portion of the frequencies of one or more cell reactionsystem components or environmental reaction conditions at leastpartially match, then at least some energy will transfer and at leastsome reaction will occur (i.e., when frequencies match, energytransfers).

Duplicating the Catalyst Mechanisms of Action

As stated previously, to catalyze, control, and/or direct a chemicalreaction, a spectral catalyst can be applied. The spectral catalyst maycorrespond to at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physicalcatalyst or the spectral catalyst may correspond to frequencies whichform or stimulate required participants (e.g., heterodyned frequencies)or the spectral catalyst may substantially duplicate environmentalreaction conditions such as temperature or pressure. Thus, as now taughtby the present invention, the actual physical presence of a catalyst isnot required to achieve the desirable chemical reactions. The removal ofa physical catalyst is accomplished by understanding the underlyingmechanism inherent in catalysis, namely that desirable energy can beexchanged (i.e., transferred) between, for example, (1) at least oneparticipant (e.g., reactant, transient, intermediate, activated complex,reaction product, promoter and/or poison) and/or at least one componentin a cell reaction system and (2) an applied electromagnetic energy(e.g., spectral catalyst) when such energy is present at one or morespecific frequencies. In other words, the targeted mechanism that naturehas built into the catalytic process can be copied according to theteachings of the present invention. Nature can be further mimickedbecause the catalyst process reveals several opportunities forduplicating catalyst mechanisms of action, and hence improving the useof spectral catalysts, as well as the control of countless chemicalreactions.

For example, the previously discussed reaction of hydrogen and oxygen toproduce water, which used platinum as a catalyst, is a good startingpoint for understanding catalyst mechanisms of action. For example, thisinvention discloses that platinum catalyzes the reaction in several waysnot contemplated by the prior art:

Platinum directly resonates with and energizes reaction intermediatesand/or transients (e.g., atomic hydrogen and hydroxy radicals);

Platinum harmonically resonates with and energizes at least one reactionintermediate and or transient (e.g., atomic hydrogen); and

Platinum energizes multiple upper energy levels of at least one reactionintermediate and or transient (e.g., atomic hydrogen).

This knowledge can be utilized to improve the functioning of thespectral catalyst and/or spectral energy catalyst to design spectralcatalysts and spectral energy catalysts which differ from actualcatalytic spectral patterns, and to design physical catalysts (orconditionable participants that can be conditioned to function asphysical catalysts) and to optimize environmental reaction conditions.For example, the frequencies of atomic platinum are in the ultraviolet,visible light, and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Theelectronic spectra of virtually all atoms are in these same regions.However, these very high electromagnetic frequencies can be a problemfor large-scale and industrial applications because wave energies havinghigh frequencies typically do not penetrate matter very well (i.e., donot penetrate far into matter). The tendency of wave energy to beabsorbed rather than transmitted, can be referred to as attenuation.High frequency wave energies have a high attenuation, and thus do notpenetrate far into a typical industrial scale reaction vessel containingtypical reactants for a chemical reaction. Thus, the duplication andapplication of at least a portion of the spectral pattern of platinuminto a commercial scale reaction vessel will typically be a slow processbecause a large portion of the applied spectral pattern of the spectralcatalysts may be rapidly absorbed near the edges of the reaction vessel.

Thus, in order to input energy into a large industrial-sized commercialreaction vessel, a lower frequency energy could be used that wouldpenetrate farther into the reactants housed within the reaction vessel.The present invention teaches that this can be accomplished in a uniquemanner by copying nature. As discussed herein, the spectra of atoms andmolecules are broadly classified into three (3) different groups:electronic, vibrational, and rotational. The electronic spectra of atomsand small molecules are said to result from transitions of electronsfrom one energy level to another, and have the corresponding highestfrequencies, typically occurring in the ultraviolet (UV), visible, andinfrared (IR) regions of the EM spectrum. The vibrational spectra aresaid to result primarily from this movement of bonds between individualatoms within molecules, and typically occur in the infrared andmicrowave regions. Rotational spectra occur primarily in the microwaveand radiowave regions of the EM spectrum due, primarily, to the rotationof the molecules.

Microwave or radiowave radiation could be an acceptable frequency to beused as a spectral catalyst because it would penetrate well into a largereaction vessel. Unfortunately, platinum atoms do not producefrequencies in the microwave or radiowave portions of theelectromagnetic spectrum because they do not have vibrational orrotational spectra. However, by copying the mechanism of actionplatinum, selected platinum frequencies can be used as a model for aspectral catalyst in the microwave portion of the spectrum.Specifically, as previously discussed, one mechanism of action ofplatinum in the cell reaction system to produce water involvesenergizing at least one reaction intermediate and/or transient. Reactionintermediates in this reaction are atomic hydrogen and the hydroxyradical. Atomic hydrogen has a high frequency electronic spectrumwithout vibrational or rotational spectra. The hydroxy radical, on theother hand, is a molecule, and has vibrational and rotational spectra aswell as an electronic spectrum. Thus, the hydroxy radical emits, absorbsand heterodynes frequencies in the microwave portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum.

Thus, to copy the mechanism of action of platinum in the reaction toform water, namely resonating with at least one reaction intermediateand/or transient, the hydroxy intermediate can be specifically targetedvia resonance. However, instead of resonating with the hydroxy radicalin its electronic spectrum, as physical platinum catalyst does, at leastone hydroxy frequency in the microwave portion of the EM spectrum can beused to resonate with the hydroxy radical. Hydroxy radicals heterodyneat a microwave frequency of about 21.4 GHz. Energizing a reaction systemof hydrogen and oxygen gas with a spectral catalyst at about 21.4 GHzwill catalyze the formation of water. In this instance, the mechanism ofaction of the physical catalyst platinum has been partially copied andthe mechanism has been shifted to a different region of theelectromagnetic spectrum.

The second method discussed above for platinum catalyzing a reaction,involves harmonically energizing at least one reaction intermediate inthe reaction system. For example, assume that one or more lasers wasavailable to catalyze the hydrogen-oxygen reaction to form water,however, the frequency range of such lasers was only from, for example,1,500 to 2,000 THz. Platinum does not produce frequencies in thatportion of the EM spectrum. Moreover, the two hydroxy frequencies thatplatinum resonates with, 975 and 1,060 THz, are outside the frequencyrange that the lasers, in this example, can generate. Likewise, thehydrogen spectrum does not have any frequencies between 1,500 and 2,000THz (see FIGS. 9-10).

However, according to the present invention, by again copying themechanism of action of platinum, frequencies can be adapted or selectedto be convenient and/or efficient for the equipment available.Specifically, harmonic frequencies corresponding to the reactionintermediates and/or transients, and also corresponding to frequenciescapable of being generated by the lasers of this example, can beutilized. For the hydroxy radical, having a resonant frequency of 975THz, the first harmonic is 1,950 THz. Thus, a laser of this examplecould be tuned to 1,950 THz to resonate harmonically with the hydroxyintermediate. The first harmonics of three different hydrogenfrequencies also fall within the operational range of the lasers of thisexample. The fundamental frequencies are 755, 770 and 781 THz and thefirst harmonics are 1,510, 1,540, and 1,562 THz, respectively. Thus, alaser of this example could be tuned to the first harmonics 1,510,1,540, and 1,562 THz in order to achieve a heterodyned matching offrequencies between electromagnetic energy and matter and thus achieve atransfer and absorption of said energy.

Thus, depending on how many lasers are available and the frequencies towhich the lasers can be tuned, third or fourth harmonics could also beutilized. The third harmonic of the hydrogen frequency, 456 THz, occursat 1,824 THz, which is also within the operating range of the lasers ofthis example. Similarly, the fourth harmonic of the hydrogen frequency,314 THz, occurs at 1,570 THz, which again falls within the operatingrange of the lasers of this example. In summary, a mechanism of actionof a physical catalyst can be copied, duplicated or mimicked whilemoving the relevant spectral catalyst frequencies, to a portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum that matches equipment available for thereaction system and the application of electromagnetic energy.

The third method discussed above for platinum catalyzing this reactioninvolves energizing at least one reaction intermediate and/or transientat multiple upper energy levels and setting up, for example, an atomicscale laser system. Again, assume that the same lasers discussed aboveare the only electromagnetic energy sources available and assume thatthere are a total of ten (10) lasers available. There are four (4) firstharmonics available for targeting within the operating frequency rangeof 1,500 to 2,000 THz. Some portion of the lasers should be adjusted tofour (4) first harmonics and some should be adjusted to the third,fourth, and higher harmonics. Specifically, the present invention hasdiscovered that a mechanism of action that physical platinum uses is toresonate with multiple upper energy levels of at least one reactionparticipant. It is now understood that the more upper energy levels thatare involved, the better. This creates an atomic scale laser system withamplification of the electromagnetic energies being exchanged betweenthe atoms of platinum and hydrogen. This amplification of energycatalyzes the reaction at a much faster rate than the reaction wouldordinarily proceed. This mechanism of action can also be exploited tocatalyze, for example, the reaction with the available lasers discussedabove.

For example, rather than setting all ten (10) lasers to the four (4)first harmonics and energizing only four (4) levels, it should now beunderstood that it would be desirable to energize as many differentenergy levels as possible. This task can be accomplished by setting eachof the ten (10) lasers to a different frequency. Even though thephysical catalyst platinum is not present, the energizing of multipleupper energy levels in the hydrogen will amplify the energies beingexchanged between the atoms, and the reaction system will form its' ownlaser system between the hydrogen atoms. This will permit the reactionto proceed at a much faster rate than it ordinarily would. Once again,nature can be mimicked by duplicating one of her mechanisms of action byspecifically targeting multiple energy levels with a spectral catalystto achieve energy transfer in a novel manner.

The preceding discussion on duplicating catalyst mechanisms of action isjust the beginning of an understanding of many variables associated withthe use of spectral catalysts. These additional variables should beviewed as potentially very useful tools for enhancing the performance ofspectral energy, and/or physical catalysts. There are many factors andvariables that affect both catalyst performance, and chemical reactionsin general. For example, when the same catalyst (or conditionedparticipant) is mixed with the same reactant, but exposed to differentenvironmental reaction conditions such as temperature or pressure,different products can be produced. Consider the following example:

The same catalyst with the same reactant, produces quite differentproducts in these two reactions, namely molecular hydrogen orcyclohexane, depending on the reaction temperature.

Many factors are known in the art which affect the direction andintensity with which a physical catalyst guides a reaction or with whicha reaction proceeds in general. Temperature is but one of these factors.Other factors include pressure, volume, surface area of physicalcatalysts, solvents, support materials, contaminants, catalyst size andshape and composition, reactor vessel size, shape and composition,electric fields, magnetic fields, acoustic fields, and whether aconditioning energy was introduced to a conditionable participant priorto the conditioned participant being involved or activated in a cellreaction system, etc. The present invention teaches that these factorsall have one thing in common. These factors are capable of changing thespectral patterns (i.e., frequency pattern) of, for example,participants and/or cell reaction system components. Some changes inspectra are very well studied and thus much information is available forconsideration and application thereof. The prior art does notcontemplate, however, the spectral chemistry basis for each of thesefactors, and how they relate to catalyst mechanisms of action, andchemical reactions in general. Further, alternatively, effects of theaforementioned factors can be enhanced or diminished by the applicationof additional spectral, spectral energy, and/or physical catalystfrequencies. Moreover, these environmental reaction conditions can be atleast partially simulated in a cell reaction system by the applicationof one or more corresponding spectral environmental reaction conditions(e.g., a spectral energy pattern which duplicates at least a portion ofone or more environmental reaction conditions). Alternatively, onespectral environmental reaction condition (e.g., a spectral energypattern corresponding to temperature) could be substituted for another(e.g., spectral energy pattern corresponding to pressure) so long as thegoal of matching of frequencies was met.

Temperature

At very low temperatures, the spectral pattern of an atom or moleculehas clean, crisp peaks (see FIG. 15 a). As the temperature increases,the peaks begin to broaden, producing a bell-shaped curve of a spectralpattern (see FIG. 15 b). At even higher temperatures, the bell-shapedcurve broadens even more, to include more and more frequencies on eitherside of the primary frequency (see FIG. 15 c). This phenomenon is called“broadening”.

These spectral curves are very much like the resonance curves discussedin the previous section. Spectroscopists use resonance curve terminologyto describe spectral frequency curves for atoms and molecules (see FIG.16). The frequency at the top of the curve, f_(o), is called theresonance frequency. There is a frequency (f₂) above the resonancefrequency and another (f₁) below it (i.e., in frequency), at which theenergy or intensity (i.e., amplitude) is 50% of that for the resonancefrequency f_(o). The quantity f₂−f₁ is a measure of how wide or narrowthe spectral frequency curve is. This quantity (f₂−f₁) is the “linewidth”. A spectrum with narrow curves has a small line width, while aspectrum with wide curves has a large line width.

Temperature affects the line width of spectral curves. Line width canaffect catalyst performance, chemical reactions and/or reactionpathways. At low temperatures, the spectral curves of chemical specieswill be separate and distinct, with a lesser possibility for thetransfer of resonant energy between potential cell reaction systemcomponents (see FIG. 17 a). However, as the line widths of potentiallyreactive chemical species broaden, their spectral curves may start tooverlap with spectral curves of other chemical species (see FIG. 17 b).When frequencies match, or spectral energy patterns overlap, energytransfers. Thus, when temperatures are low, frequencies do not match andreactions are slow. At higher temperatures, resonant transfer of energycan take place and reactions can proceed very quickly or proceed along adifferent reaction pathway than they otherwise would have at a lowertemperature.

Besides affecting the line width of the spectral curves, temperaturealso can change, for example, the resonant frequency of holoreactionsystem components. For some chemical species, the resonant frequencywill shift as temperature changes. This can be seen in the infraredabsorption spectra in FIG. 18 a and blackbody radiation graphs shown inFIG. 18 b. Further, atoms and molecules do not all shift their resonantfrequencies by the same amount or in the same direction, when they areat the same temperature. This can also affect catalyst performance. Forexample, if a catalyst resonant frequency shifts more with increasedtemperature than the resonant frequency of its targeted chemicalspecies, then the catalyst could end up matching the frequency of achemical species, and resonance may be created where none previouslyexisted (see FIG. 18 c). Specifically, FIG. 18 c shows catalyst “C” atlow temperature and “C*” at high temperature. The catalyst “C*”resonates with reactant “A” at high temperatures, but not at lowtemperatures.

The amplitude or intensity of a spectral line may be affected bytemperature also. For example, linear and symmetric rotor molecules willhave an increase in intensity as the temperature is lowered while othermolecules will increase intensity as the temperature is raised. Thesechanges of spectral intensity can also affect catalyst performance.Consider the example where a low intensity spectral curve of a catalystis resonant with one or more frequencies of a specific chemical target.Only small amounts of energy can be transferred from the catalyst to thetarget chemical (e.g., a hydroxy intermediate). As temperatureincreases, the amplitude of the catalyst's curve increases also. In thisexample, the catalyst can transfer much larger amounts of energy to thechemical target when the temperature is raised.

If the chemical target is the intermediate chemical species for analternative reaction route, the type and ratio of end products may beaffected. By examining the above cyclohexene/palladium reaction again,at temperatures below 300° C., the products are benzene and hydrogengas. However, when the temperature is above 300° C., the products arebenzene and cyclohexane. Temperature is affecting the palladium and/orother constituents in the cell reaction system (including, for example,reactants, intermediates, and/or products) in such a way that analternative reaction pathway leading to the formation of cyclohexane isfavored above 300° C. This could be a result of, for example, increasedline width, altered resonance frequencies, or changes in spectral curveintensities for any of the components in the cell reaction system.

It is important to consider not only the spectral catalyst frequenciesone may wish to use to catalyze a reaction, but also the reactionconditions under which those frequencies are supposed to work. Forexample, in the palladium/cyclohexene reaction at low temperatures, thepalladium may match frequencies with an intermediate for the formationof hydrogen molecules (H₂). At temperatures above 300° C. the reactantsand transients may be unaffected, but the palladium may have anincreased line width, altered resonant frequency and/or increasedintensity. The changes in the line width, resonant frequency and/orintensity may cause the palladium to match frequencies and transferenergy to an intermediate in the formation of cyclohexane instead. If aspectral catalyst was to be used to assist in the formation ofcyclohexane at room temperature, the frequency for the cyclohexaneintermediate would be more effective if used, rather than the spectralcatalyst frequency used at room temperature.

Thus, it may be important to understand the cell reaction systemdynamics in designing and selecting an appropriate spectral catalyst.The transfer of energy between different cell reaction system componentswill vary, depending on temperature. Once understood, this allows one toknowingly adjust temperature to optimize a reaction, reaction product,interaction and/or formation of reaction product at a desirable reactionrate, without the trial and error approaches of prior art. Further, itallows one to choose catalysts such as physical catalysts, spectralcatalysts, and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize a desiredreaction pathway. This understanding of the spectral impact oftemperature allows one to perform customarily high temperature (and,sometimes high danger) chemical processes at safer, room temperatures.It also allows one to design physical catalysts which work at muchbroader temperature ranges (e.g., frigid arctic temperatures or hotfurnace temperatures), as desired.

Pressure

Pressure and temperature are directly related to each other.Specifically, from the ideal gas law, we know thatPV=nRTwhere P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R isthe gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Thus, atequilibrium, an increase in temperature will result in a correspondingincrease in pressure. Pressure also has an effect on spectral patterns.Specifically, increases in pressure can cause broadening and changes inspectral curves, just as increases in temperature do (see FIG. 19 whichshows the pressure broadening effects on the NH₃ 3.3 absorption line).

Mathematical treatments of pressure broadening are generally groupedinto either collision or statistical theories. In collision theories,the assumption is made that most of the time an atom or molecule is sofar from other atoms or molecules that their energy fields do notinteract. Occasionally, however, the atoms or molecules come so closetogether that they collide. In this case, the atom or molecule mayundergo a change in wave phase (spectral) function, or may change to adifferent energy level. Collision theories treat the matter's emittedenergy as occurring only when the atom or molecule is far from others,and is not involved in a collision. Because collision theories ignorespectral frequencies during collisions, collision theories fail topredict accurately chemical behavior at more than a few atmospheres ofpressure, when collisions are frequent.

Statistical theories, however, consider spectral frequencies before,during and after collisions. They are based on calculating theprobabilities that various atoms and/or molecules are interacting with,or perturbed by other atoms or molecules. The drawback with statisticaltreatments of pressure effects is that the statistical treatments do notdo a good job of accounting for the effects of molecular motion. In anyevent, neither collision nor statistical theories adequately predict therich interplay of frequencies and heterodynes that take place aspressure is increased. Experimental work has demonstrated that increasedpressure can have effects similar to those produced by increasedtemperature, by:

1) broadening of the spectral curve, producing increased line width; and

2) shifting of the resonant frequency (f_(o)).

Pressure effects different from those produced by temperatures are: (1)pressure changes typically do not affect intensity, (see FIG. 20 whichshows a theoretical set of curves exhibiting an unchanged intensity forthree applied different pressures) as with temperature changes; and (2)the curves produced by pressure broadening are often less symmetric thanthe temperature-affected curves. Consider the shape of the threetheoretical curves shown in FIG. 20. As the pressure increases, thecurves become less symmetrical. A tail extending into the higherfrequencies develops. This upper frequency extension is confirmed by theexperimental work shown in FIG. 21. Specifically, FIG. 21 a shows apattern for the absorption by water vapor in air (10 g of H₂O per cubicmeter); and FIG. 21 b shows the absorption in NH₃ at 1 atmospherepressure.

Pressure broadening effects on spectral curves are broadly grouped intotwo types: resonance or “Holtsmark” broadening, and “Lorentz”broadening. Holtsmark broadening is secondary to collisions betweenatoms of the same element, and thus the collisions are considered to besymmetrical. Lorentz broadening results from collisions between atoms ormolecules which are different. The collisions are asymmetric, and theresonant frequency, f_(o), is often shifted to a lower frequency. Thisshift in resonant frequency is shown in FIG. 20. The changes in spectralcurves and frequencies that accompany changes in pressure can affectcatalysts, both physical and spectral, and chemical reactions and/orreaction pathways. At low pressures, the spectral curves tend to befairly narrow and crisp, and nearly symmetrical about the resonantfrequency. However, as pressures increase, the curves may broaden,shift, and develop high frequency tails.

At low pressures the spectral frequencies in the cell reaction systemmight be so different for the various atoms and molecules that there maybe little or no resonant effect, and thus little or no energy transfer.At higher pressures, however, the combination of broadening, shiftingand extension into higher frequencies can produce overlapping betweenthe spectral curves, resulting in the creation of resonance, where nonepreviously existed, and thus, the transfer of energy. The cell reactionsystem may proceed down one reaction pathway or another, depending onthe changes in spectral curves produced by various pressure changes. Onereaction pathway may be resonant and proceed at moderate pressure, whileanother reaction pathway may be resonant and predominate at higherpressures. As with temperature, it is important to consider the cellreaction system frequencies and mechanisms of action of variouscatalysts under the environmental reaction conditions one wishes toduplicate. Specifically, in order for an efficient transfer of energy tooccur between, for example, a spectral catalyst and at least onereactant in a cell reaction system, there must be at least some overlapin frequencies.

For example, a reaction with a physical catalyst at 400 THz and a keytransient at 500 THz may proceed slowly at atmospheric pressure. Wherethe frequency pressure is raised to about five (5) atmospheres, thecatalyst broadens out through the 500 THz, for example, of thetransient. This allows the transfer of energy between the catalyst andtransient by, for example, energizing and stimulating the transient. Thereaction then proceeds very quickly. Without wishing to be bound by anyparticular theory or explanation, it appears that, the speed of thereaction has much less to do with the number of collisions (as taught bythe prior art) than it has to do with the spectral patterns of the cellreaction system components. In the above example, the reaction could beenergized at low pressures by applying the 500 THz frequency to directlystimulate the key transient. This could also be accompanied indirectlyusing various heterodynes, (e.g., @ 1,000 THz harmonic, or a 100 THznon-harmonic heterodyne between the catalyst and transient (500 THz−400THz=100 THz.).

As shown herein, the transfer of energy between different cell reactionsystem components will vary, depending on pressure. Once understood,this allows one to knowingly adjust pressure to optimize a reaction,without the trial and error approaches of prior art. Further, it allowsone to choose catalysts such as physical catalysts, spectral catalysts,and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize one or more desired reactionpathways. This understanding of the spectral impact of pressure allowsone to perform customarily high pressure (and thus, typically, highdanger) chemical processes at safer, room pressures. It also allows oneto design physical catalysts which work over a large range of acceptablepressures (e.g., low pressures approaching a vacuum to severalatmospheres of pressure).

Surface Area

Traditionally, the surface are of a catalyst has been considered to beimportant because the available surface area controls the number ofavailable binding sites. Supposedly, the more exposed binding sites, themore catalysis. In light of the spectral mechanisms disclosed in thepresent invention, surface area may be important for another reason.

Many of the spectral catalyst frequencies that correspond to physicalcatalysts are electronic frequencies in the visible light andultraviolet regions of the spectrum. These high frequencies haverelatively poor penetrance into, for example, large reaction vesselsthat contain one or more reactants. The high frequency spectralemissions from a catalyst such as platinum or palladium (or theequivalent spectral catalyst) will thus not travel very far into such acell reaction system before such spectral emissions (or spectralcatalysts) are absorbed. Thus, for example, an atom or molecule must befairly close to a physical catalyst so that their respective electronicfrequencies can interact.

Thus, surface area primarily affects the probability that a particularchemical species, will be close enough to the physical catalyst tointeract with its electromagnetic spectra emission(s). With smallsurface area, few atoms or molecules will be close enough to interact.However, as surface area increases, so too does the probability thatmore atoms or molecules will be within range for reaction. Thus, ratherthan increasing the available number of binding sites, larger surfacearea probably increases the volume of the cell reaction system exposedto the spectral catalyst frequencies or patterns. This is similar to theconcept of assuring adequate penetration of a spectral catalyst into acell reaction system (e.g., assuming that there are adequateopportunities for species to interact with each other).

An understanding of the effects of surface area on catalysts and cellreaction system components allows one to knowingly adjust surface areaand other cell reaction system components to optimize a reaction,reaction pathway and/or formation of reaction product(s), at a desirablereaction rate, without the drawbacks of the prior art. For instance,surface area is currently optimized by making catalyst particles assmall as possible, thereby maximizing the overall surface area. Thesmall particles have a tendency to, for example, sinter (merge or bondtogether) which decreases the overall surface area and catalyticactivity. Rejuvenation of a large surface area catalyst can be a costlyand time-consuming process. This process can be avoided with anunderstanding of the herein presented invention in the field of spectralchemistry. For example, assume a reaction is quickly catalyzed by a 3 m²catalyst bed (in a transfer of energy from catalyst to a key reactantand product). After sintering takes place, however, the surface area isreduced to 1 m². Thus, the transfer of energy from the catalyst isdramatically reduced, and the reaction slows down. The costly andtime-consuming process of rejuvenating the surface area can be avoided(or at least delayed) by augmenting the cell reaction system with one ormore desirable spectral energy patterns. In addition, because spectralenergy patterns can affect the final physical form or phase of amaterial, as well as its chemical formula, the sintering process itselfmay be reduced or eliminated.

Catalyst Size and Shape

In a related line of reasoning, catalyst size and shape are classicallythought to affect physical catalyst activity. Selectivity of reactionscontrolled by particle size has historically been used to steercatalytic pathways. As with surface area, certain particle sizes arethought to provide a maximum number of active binding sites and thusmaximize the reaction rate. The relationship between size and surfacearea has been previously discussed.

In light of the current understanding of the spectral mechanismsunderlying the activity of physical catalysts and reactions in general,catalyst size and shape may be important for other reasons. One of thosereasons is a phenomenon called “self absorption”. When a single atom ormolecule produces its' classical spectral pattern it radiateselectromagnetic energy which travels outward from the atom or moleculeinto neighboring space. FIG. 22 a shows radiation from a single atomversus radiation from a group of atoms as shown in FIG. 22 b. As moreand more atoms or molecules group together, radiation from the center ofthe group is absorbed by its' neighbors and may never make it out intospace. Depending on the size and shape of the group of atoms, selfabsorption can cause a number of changes in the spectral emissionpattern (see FIG. 23). Specifically, FIG. 23 a shows a normal spectralcurve produced by a single atom; FIG. 23 b shows a resonant frequencyshift due to self absorption; FIG. 23 c shows a self-reversal spectralpattern produced by self absorption in a group of atoms and FIG. 23 dshows a self-reversal spectral pattern produced by self absorption in agroup of atoms. These changes include a shift in resonant frequency andself-reversal patterns.

The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes incatalyst size and shape can affect catalysts, chemical reactions and/orreaction pathways. For example, atoms or molecules of a physicalcatalyst may produce spectral frequencies in the cell reaction systemwhich resonate with a key transient and/or reaction product. With largergroups of atoms, such as in a sintered catalyst, the combination ofresonant frequency shifting and self-reversal may eliminate overlappingbetween the spectral curves of chemical species, thereby minimizing ordestroying conditions of resonance.

A cell reaction system may proceed down one reaction pathway or another,depending on the changes in spectral curves produced by the particlesizes. For example, a catalyst) or conditioned participant) having amoderate particle size may proceed down a first reaction pathway while alarger size catalyst may direct the reaction down another reactionpathway.

The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes incatalyst size and shape are relevant for practical applications.Industrial catalysts are manufactured in a range of sizes and shapes,depending on the design requirements of the process and the type ofreactor used. Catalyst activity is typically proportional to the surfacearea of the catalyst bed in the reactor. Surface area increases as thesize of the catalyst particles decreases. Seemingly, the smaller thecatalyst particles, the better for industrial applications. This is notalways the case, however. When a very fine bed of catalyst particles isused, high pressures may be required to force the reacting chemicalsacross or through the catalyst bed. The chemicals enter the catalyst bedunder high pressure, and exit the bed (e.g., the other side) at a lowerpressure. This large difference between entry and exit pressures iscalled a “pressure drop”. A compromise is often required betweencatalyst size, catalyst activity, and pressure drop across the catalystbed.

The use of spectral catalysts according to the present invention allowsfor much finer tuning of this compromise. For example, a large catalystsize can be used so that pressure drops across the catalyst bed areminimized. At the same time, the high level of catalyst activityobtained with a smaller catalyst size can still be obtained by, forexample, augmenting the physical catalyst with at least a portion of oneor more spectral catalyst(s).

For example, assume that a 10 mm average particle size catalyst has 50%of the activity of a 5 mm average particle size catalyst. With a 5mm-diameter catalyst, however, the pressure drop across the reactor maybe so large that the reaction cannot be economically performed. Thecompromise in historical processes has typically been to use twice asmuch of the 10 mm catalyst, to obtain the same, or approximately thesame, amount of activity as with the original amount of 5 mm catalyst.However, an alternative desirable approach is to use the original amountof 10 mm physical catalyst and augment the physical catalyst with atleast a portion of at least one spectral catalyst. Catalyst activity canbe effectively doubled (or increased even more) by the spectralcatalyst, resulting in approximately the same degree of activity (orperhaps even greater activity) as with the 5 mm catalyst. Thus, thepresent invention permits the size of the catalyst to be larger, whileretaining favorable reactor vessel pressure conditions so that thereaction can be performed economically, using half as much (or less)physical catalyst as compared to traditional prior art approaches.

Another manner to approach the problem of pressure drops in physicalcatalyst beds, is to eliminate the physical catalyst completely. Forexample, in another embodiment of the invention, a fiberoptic sieve,(e.g., one with very large pores) can be used in a flow-through reactorvessel. If the pore size is designed to be large enough there can bevirtually no pressure drop across the sieve, compared to a pressure dropaccompanying the use of a 5 mm diameter or even a 10 mm diameterphysical catalyst discussed above. According to the present invention,the spectral catalyst can be emitted through the fiberoptic sieve, thuscatalyzing the reacting species as they flow by. This improvement overthe prior art approaches has significant processing implicationsincluding lower costs, higher rates and improved safety, to mention onlya few.

Industrial catalysts are also manufactured in a range of shapes, as wellas sizes. Shapes include spheres, irregular granules, pellets,extrudate, and rings. Some shapes are more expensive to manufacture thanothers, while some shapes have superior properties (e.g., catalystactivity, strength, and less pressure drop) than others. While spheresare inexpensive to manufacture, a packed bed of spheres produceshigh-pressure drops and the spheres are typically not very strong.Physical catalyst rings on the other hand, have superior strength andactivity and produce very little pressure drop, but they are alsorelatively expensive to produce.

Spectral energy catalysts permit a greater flexibility in choosingcatalyst shape. For example, instead of using a packed bed ofinexpensive spheres, with the inevitable high pressure drop andresulting mechanical damage to the catalyst particles, a single layer ofspheres augmented, for example, with a spectral energy catalyst can beused. This catalyst is inexpensive, activity is maintained, and largepressure drops are not produced, thus preventing mechanical damage andextending the useful life of physical catalyst spheres. Similarly, farsmaller numbers of catalyst rings can be used while obtaining the sameor greater catalyst activity by, for example, supplementing with atleast a portion of a spectral catalyst. The process can proceed at afaster flow-through rate because the catalyst bed will be smallerrelative to a bed that is not augmented with a spectral catalyst.

The use of spectral energy catalysts and/or spectral environmentalreaction conditions to augment existing physical catalysts has thefollowing advantages:

-   -   permit the use of less expensive shaped catalyst particles;    -   permit the use of fewer catalyst particles overall;    -   permit the use of stronger shapes of catalyst particles; and    -   permit the use of catalyst particle shapes with better pressure        drop characteristics.

Their use to replace existing physical catalysts has similar advantages:

-   -   eliminate the use and expense of catalyst particles altogether;    -   allow use of spectral catalyst delivery systems that are        stronger; and    -   delivery systems can be designed to incorporate superior        pressure drop characteristics.

Catalyst size and shape are also important to spectral emission patternsbecause all objects have an NOF depending on their size and shape. Thesmaller an object is in dimension, the higher its NOF will be infrequency (because speed=length×frequency). Also, two (2) objects of thesame size, but different shape will have different NOF's (e.g., theresonant NOF frequency of a 1.0 m diameter sphere, is different from theNOF for a 1.0 m edged cube). Wave energies (both acoustic and EM) willhave unique resonant frequencies for particular objects. The objects,such as physical catalyst particles or powder granules of reactants in aslurry, will act like antennas, absorbing and emitting energies at theirstructurally resonant frequencies. With this understanding, one isfurther able to manipulate and control the size and shape of cellreaction system components (e.g., physical catalysts, reactants, etc.)to achieve desired effects. For example, a transient for a desiredreaction pathway may produce a spectral rotational frequency of 30 GHz.Catalyst spheres 1 cm in diameter with structural EM resonant frequencyof 30 GHz (3×10⁸ m/s 1×10⁻² m=30×10⁹ Hz), can be used to catalyze thereaction. The catalyst particles will structurally resonate with therotational frequency of the transient, providing energy to the transientand catalyzing the reaction. Likewise, the structurally resonantcatalyst particles may be further energized by a spectral energycatalyst, such as, for example, 30 GHz microwave radiation. Thusunderstood, the spectral dynamics of chemical reactions can be much moreprecisely controlled than in prior art trial and error approaches.

Solvents

Typically, the term solvent is applied to mixtures for which the solventis a liquid, however, it should be understood that solvents may alsocomprise solids, liquids, gases or plasmas and/or mixtures and/orcomponents thereof. The prior art typically groups liquid solvents intothree broad classes: aqueous, organic, and non-aqueous. If an aqueoussolvent is used, it means that the solvent is water. Organic solventsinclude hydrocarbons such as alcohols and ethers. Non-aqueous solventsinclude inorganic non-water substances. Many catalyzed reactions takeplace in solvents.

Because solvents are themselves composed of atoms, molecules and/or ionsthey can have pronounced effects on chemical reactions. Solvents arecomprised of matter and they emit their own spectral frequencies. Thepresent invention teaches that these solvent frequencies undergo thesame basic processes discussed earlier, including heterodyning,resonance, and harmonics. Spectroscopists have known for years that asolvent can dramatically affect the spectral frequencies produced byits' solutes. Likewise, chemists have known for years that solvents canaffect catalyst activity. However, the spectroscopists and chemists inthe prior art have apparently not associated these long studied changesin solute frequencies with changes in catalyst activity. The presentinvention recognizes that these changes in solute spectral frequenciescan affect catalyst activity and chemical reactions and/or reactionpathways in general, changes include spectral curve broadening. Changesof curve intensity, gradual or abrupt shifting of the resonant frequencyf₀, and even abrupt rearrangement of resonant frequencies.

Further, the present invention recognizes that one or more spectralfrequencies in a solvent may be targeted by a spectral energy pattern orspectral energy conditioning pattern to change one or more properties ofthe solvent, and hence may change the reaction and energy dynamics in aholoreaction system. Similarly, a spectral energy pattern or a spectralenergy conditioning pattern may be applied to a solute, causing a changein one or more properties of the solute, solvent, or solute/solventsystem, and hence may change the reaction and energy dynamics in aholoreaction system.

When reviewing FIG. 24 a, the solid line represents a portion of thespectral pattern of phthalic acid in alcohol while the dotted linerepresents phthalic acid in the solvent hexane. Consider a reactiontaking place in alcohol, in which the catalyst resonates with phthalicacid at a frequency of 1,250, the large solid curve in the middle. Ifthe solvent is changed to hexane, the phthalic acid no longer resonatesat a frequency of 1,250 and the catalyst can not stimulate and energizeit. The change in solvent will render the catalyst ineffective.

Similarly, in reference to FIG. 24 b, iodine produces a high intensitycurve at 580 when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride, as shown in curveB. In alcohol, as shown by curve A the iodine produces instead, amoderate intensity curve at 1,050 and a low intensity curve at 850.Accordingly, assume that a reaction uses a spectral catalyst thatresonates directly with the iodine in carbon tetrachloride at 580. Ifthe spectral catalyst does not change and the solvent is changed toalcohol, the spectral catalyst will no longer function becausefrequencies no longer match and energy will not transfer. Specifically,the spectral catalyst's frequency of 580 will no longer match andresonate with the new iodine frequencies of 850 and 1,050.

However, there is the possibility that the catalyst will change itsspectral pattern with a change in the solvent. The catalyst could changein a similar manner to the iodine, in which case the catalyst maycontinue to catalyze the reaction regardless of the change in solvent.Conversely, the spectral catalyst pattern could change in a directionopposite to the spectral pattern of the iodine. In this instance, thecatalyst will again fail to catalyze the original reaction. There isalso the possibility that the change in the catalyst could bring thecatalyst into resonance with a different chemical species and help thereaction proceed down an alternative reaction pathway.

Finally, consider the graph in FIG. 24 c, which shows a variety ofsolvent mixtures ranging from 100% benzene at the far left, to a 50:50mixture of benzene and alcohol in the center, to 100% alcohol at the farright. The solute is phenylazophenol. The phenylazophenol has afrequency of 855-860 for most of the solvent mixtures. For a 50:50benzene:alcohol mixture the frequency is 855; or for a 98:2benzene:alcohol mixture the frequency is still 855. However, at 99.5:0.5benzene:alcohol mixture, the frequency abruptly changes to about 865. Acatalyst active in 100% benzene by resonating with the phenylazophenolat 865, will lose its activity if there is even a slight amount ofalcohol (e.g., 0.5%) in the solvent.

Thus understood, the principles of spectral chemistry presented hereincan be applied to catalysis, and reactions and/or reaction pathways ingeneral. Instead of using the prior art trial and error approach to thechoice of solvents and/or other cell reaction system components,solvents can be tailored and/or modified to optimize the spectralenvironmental reaction conditions. For example, a reaction may have akey reaction participant which resonates at 400 THz, while the catalystresonates at 800 THz transferring energy harmonically. Changing thesolvent may cause the resonant frequencies of both the participant andthe catalyst to abruptly shift to 600 THz. There the catalyst wouldresonate directly with the participant, transferring even more energy,and catalyzing the cell reaction system more efficiently.

Further, the properties of solvents, solutes, and solvent/solute systemsmay be affected by spectral energy providers. Water is the universalsolvent. It is commonly known and understood that if water is heated,its kinetic energy increases, and hence, the rate at which solutesdissolve also increases. After a solute has been added to a solvent,such as water, physical properties such as pH and conductivity change ata rate related to their kinetic energy and the temperature of thesolute/solvent system.

A novel aspect of the present invention is the understanding that theproperties of solvents, solutes and solvent/solute systems may beaffected and controlled by spectral energy providers outside the realmof simple thermal or kinetic mechanisms. For example, water at about 28°C. will dissolve salt (sodium chloride) at a particular rate. Water atabout 28° C. which has been conditioned with its own vibrationalovertones will dissolve salt faster, even though there is no apparentdifference in temperature. Similarly, if salt is added to water, thereis a predictable rate of change in the pH and conductivity of thesolution. If the water is conditioned or spectrally activated with itsown vibrational overtones, either before or after, respectively, theaddition of the salt, the rate of change of pH and conductivity isenhanced even though there is no difference in temperature. Theseeffects are shown in greater detail in the Examples section herein.

Further, if the salt is conditioned with some of its own electronicfrequencies prior to adding it to water, the rate of change ofconductivity is again enhanced, even though there is again no apparentdifference in temperature. These effects are shown in greater detail inthe Examples section herein.

In general, delivery of spectral energy patterns and/or spectral energyconditioning patterns to solvents, solutes: and solvent/solute systemsmay change the energy dynamics of the solvent and/or solute and hencetheir properties in a holoreaction system. These spectral techniquesdisclosed herein can be used to control many aspects of mattertransformations such as chemical reactions, phase changes, and materialproperties (all of which are described in the Examples section herein).

Support Materials

Catalysts can be either unsupported or supported. An unsupportedcatalyst is a formulation of the pure catalyst, with substantially noother molecules present. Unsupported catalysts are rarely usedindustrially because these catalysts generally have low surface area andhence low activity. The low surface area can result from, for example,sintering, or coalescence of small molecules of the catalyst into largerparticles in a process which reduces surface tension of the particles.An example of an unsupported catalyst is platinum alloy gauze, which issometimes used for the selective oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide.Another example is small silver granules, sometimes used to catalyze thereaction of methanol with air, to form formaldehyde. When the use ofunsupported catalysts is possible, their advantages includestraightforward fabrication and relatively simple installation invarious industrial processes.

A supported catalyst is a formulation of the catalyst with otherparticles, the other particles acting as a supporting skeleton for thecatalyst. Traditionally, the support particles are thought to be inert,thus providing a simple physical scaffolding for the catalyst molecules.Thus, one of the traditional functions of the support material is togive the catalyst shape and mechanical strength. The support material isalso said to reduce sintering rates. If the catalyst support is finelydivided similar to the catalyst, the support will act as a “spacer”between the catalyst particles, and hence prevent sintering. Analternative theory holds that an interaction takes place between thecatalyst and support, thereby preventing sintering. This theory issupported by the many observations that catalyst activity is altered bychanges in support material structure and composition.

Supported catalysts are generally made by one or more of the followingthree methods: impregnation, precipitation, and/or crystallization.Impregnation techniques use preformed support materials, which are thenexposed to a solution containing the catalyst or its precursors. Thecatalyst or precursors diffuse into the pores of the support. Heating,or another conversion process, drives off the solvent and transforms thecatalyst or precursors into the final catalyst. The most common supportmaterials for impregnation are refractory oxides such as aluminas andaluminum hydrous oxides. These support materials have found theirgreatest use for catalysts that must operate under extreme conditionssuch as steam reforming, because they have reasonable mechanicalstrengths.

Precipitation techniques use concentrated solutions of catalyst salts(e.g., usually metal salts). The salt solutions are rapidly mixed andthen allowed to precipitate in a finely divided form. The precipitate isthen prepared using a variety of processes including washing, filtering,drying, heating, and pelleting. Often a graphitic lubricant is added.Precipitated catalysts have high catalytic activity secondary to highsurface area, but they are generally not as strong as impregnatedcatalysts.

Crystallization techniques produce support materials called zeolites.The structure of these crystallized catalyst zeolites is based on SiO₄and AlO₄ (see FIG. 25 a which shows the tetrahedral units of silicon;and FIG. 25 b which shows the tetrahedral units of aluminum). Theseunits link in different combinations to form structural families, whichinclude rings, chains, and complex polyhedra. For example, the SiO₄ andAlO₄ tetrahderal units can form truncated octahedron structures, whichform the building blocks for A, X, and Y zeolites (see FIG. 26 a whichshows a truncated octahedron structure with lines representing oxygenatoms and corners are Al or Si atoms; FIG. 26 b which shows zeolite withjoined truncated octahedrons joined by oxygen bridges between squarefaces; and FIG. 26 c which shows zeolites X and Y with joined truncatedoctahedrons joined by oxygen bridges between hexagonal faces).

The crystalline structure of zeolites gives them a well defined poresize and structure. This differs from the varying pore sizes found inimpregnated or precipitated support materials. Zeolite crystals are madeby mixing solutions of silicates and aluminates and the catalyst.Crystallization is generally induced by heating (see spectral effects oftemperature in the Section entitled “Temperature”). The structure of theresulting zeolite depends on the silicon/aluminum ratio, theirconcentration, the presence of added catalyst, the temperature, and eventhe size of the reaction vessels used, all of which are environmentalreaction conditions. Zeolites generally have greater specificity thanother catalyst support materials (e.g., they do not just speed up thereaction). They also may steer the reaction towards a particularreaction pathway.

Support materials can affect the activity of a catalyst. Traditionally,the prior art has attributed these effects to geometric factors.However, according to the present invention, there are spectral factorsto consider as well. It has been well established that solvents affectthe spectral patterns produced by their solutes. Solvents can beliquids, solids, gases and/or plasmas Support materials can, in manycases, be viewed as nothing more than solid solvents for catalysts. Assuch, support materials can affect the spectral patterns produced bytheir solute catalysts.

Just as dissolved sugar can be placed into a solid phase solvent (ice),catalysts can be placed into support materials that are solid phasesolvents. These support material solid solvents can have similarspectral effects on catalysts that liquid solvents have. Supportmaterials can change spectral frequencies of their catalyst solutes by,for example, causing spectral curve broadening, changing of curveintensity, gradual or abrupt shifting of the resonant frequency f_(o),and even abrupt rearrangement of resonant frequencies.

Further, uses of spectral techniques to affect matter transformationsare not limited to solvent/solute or support/catalysts systems, butrather apply broadly to all material systems and phases of matter, andtheir respective properties (e.g., chemical, physical, electrical,magnetic, thermal, etc.).

The use of targeted spectral techniques in numerous materials systems(including solid, liquid and gas to control chemical reactions, phasechanges and material properties (e.g., chemical physical, electrical,thermal, etc.) is described more fully in the Examples section laterherein.

Support materials can be simply viewed as solid solvents for theircatalyst solutes. The present invention teaches that spectral techniquescan be used to control many aspects of matter transformation insolvent/solute systems such as chemical reactions, phase changes, andmaterial properties. Similarly, spectral techniques can be used tocontrol many aspects such as chemical reactions, phase changes, andmaterial properties of support/catalyst systems. These spectraltechniques can be used to affect the synthesis of support/catalystsystems, or to affect the subsequent properties of the support/catalystsystem in a holoreaction system.

Thus, due to the disclosure herein, it should become clear to an artisanof ordinary skill that changes in support materials can have dramaticeffects on catalyst activity. The support materials affect the spectralfrequencies produced by the catalysts. The changes in catalyst spectralfrequencies produce varying effects on chemical reactions and catalystactivity, including accelerating the rate of reaction and also guidingthe reaction on a particular reaction path. Thus support materials canpotentially influence the matching of frequencies and can thus favor thepossibility of transferring energy between cell reaction systemcomponents and/or spectral energy patterns, thus permitting certainreactions to occur.

Poisoning

Poisoning of catalysts occurs when the catalyst activity is reduced byadding a small amount of another constituent, such as a chemicalspecies. The prior art has attributed poisoning to chemical species thatcontain excess electrons (e.g., electron donor materials) and toadsorption of poisons onto the physical catalyst surface where thepoison physically blocks reaction sites. However, neither of thesetheories satisfactorily explains poisoning.

Consider the case of nickel hydrogenation catalysts. These physicalcatalysts are substantially deactivated if only 0.1% sulphur compoundsby weight are adsorbed onto them. It is difficult to believe that 0.1%sulphur by weight could contribute so many electrons as to inactivatethe nickel catalyst. Likewise, it is difficult to believe that thepresence of 0.1% sulphur by weight occupies so many reaction sites thatit completely deactivates the catalyst. Accordingly, neither prior artexplanation is satisfying.

Poisoning phenomena can be more logically understood in terms ofspectral chemistry. In reference to the example in the Solvent Sectionusing a benzene solvent and phenylazophenol as the solute, in purebenzene the phenylazophenol had a spectral frequency of 865 Hz. Theaddition of just a few drops of alcohol (0.5%) abruptly changed thephenylazophenol frequency to 855. If the expectation was for thephenylazophenol to resonate at 865, then the alcohol would have poisonedthat particular reaction. The addition of small quantities of otherchemical species can change the resonant frequencies (f_(o)) ofcatalysts and reacting chemicals. The addition of another chemicalspecies can act as a poison to take the catalyst and reacting speciesout of resonance (i.e., the presence of the additional species canremove any substantial overlapping of frequencies and thus prevent anysignificant transfer of energy).

Besides changing resonant frequencies of chemical species, adding smallamounts of other chemicals can also affect the spectral intensities ofthe catalyst and, for example, other atoms and molecules in the cellreaction system by either increasing or decreasing the spectralintensities. Consider cadmium and zinc mixed in an alumina-silicaprecipitate (see FIG. 27 which shows the influences of copper andbismuth on the zinc/cadmium line ratio). A normal ratio between thecadmium 3252.5 spectral line and the zinc 3345.0 spectral line wasdetermined. The addition of sodium, potassium, lead, and magnesium hadlittle or no effect on the Cd/Zn intensity ratio. However, the additionof copper reduced the relative intensity of the zinc line and increasedthe cadmium intensity. Conversely, addition of bismuth increased therelative intensity of the zinc line while decreasing cadmium.

Also, consider the effect of small amounts of magnesium on acopper-aluminum mixture (see FIG. 28 which shows the influence ofmagnesium on the copper aluminum intensity ratio). Magnesium present at0.6%, caused significant reductions in line intensity for copper and foraluminum. At 1.4% magnesium, the spectral intensities for both copperand aluminum were reduced by about a third. If the copper frequency isimportant for catalyzing a reaction, adding this small amount ofmagnesium would dramatically reduce the catalyst activity. Thus, itcould be concluded that the copper catalyst had been poisoned by themagnesium.

In summary, poisoning effects on catalysts are due to spectral changes.Adding a small amount of another chemical species to a physical catalystand/or cell reaction system can change the resonance frequencies or thespectral intensities of one or more chemical species (e.g., reactant).The catalyst might remain the same, while a crucial intermediate ischanged. Likewise, the catalyst might change, while the intermediatestays the same. They might both change, or they might both stay the sameand be oblivious to the added poison species. This understanding isimportant to achieving the goals of the present invention which includetargeting species to cause an overlap in frequencies, or in thisinstance, specifically targeting one or more species so as to preventany substantial overlap in frequencies and thus prevent reactions fromoccurring by blocking the transfer of energy.

Promoters

Just as adding a small amount of another chemical species to a catalystand cell reaction system can poison the activity of the catalyst, theopposite can also happen. When an added species enhances the activity ofa catalyst, it is called a promoter. For instance, adding a few percentcalcium and potassium oxide to iron-alumina compounds promotes activityof the iron catalyst for ammonia synthesis. Promoters act by all themechanisms discussed previously in the Sections entitled Solvents,Support Materials, and Poisoning. Not surprisingly, some supportmaterials actually are promoters. Promoters enhance catalysts andspecific reactions and/or reaction pathways by changing spectralfrequencies and intensities. While a catalyst poison takes the reactingspecies out of resonance (i.e., the frequencies do not overlap), thepromoter brings them into resonance (i.e., the frequencies do overlap).Likewise, instead of reducing the spectral intensity of crucialfrequencies, the promoter may increase the crucial intensities.

Thus, if it was desired for phenylazophenol to react at 855 in a benzenesolvent, alcohol could be added and the alcohol would be termed apromoter. If it was desired for the phenylazophenol too react at 865,alcohol could be added and the alcohol could be considered a poison.Thus understood, the differences between poisons and promoters are amatter of perspective, and depend on which reaction pathways and/orreaction products are desired. They both act by the same underlyingspectral chemistry mechanisms of the present invention.

Concentrations

Concentrations of chemical species are known to affect reaction ratesand dynamics. Concentration also affects catalyst activity. The priorart explains these effects by the probabilities that various chemicalspecies will collide with each other. At high concentrations of aparticular species, there are many individual atoms or moleculespresent. The more atoms or molecules present, the more likely they areto collide with something else. However, this statistical treatment bythe prior art does not explain the entire situation. FIG. 29 showsvarious concentrations of N-methyl urethane in a carbon tetrachloridesolution. At low concentrations, the spectral lines have a relativelylow intensity. However, as the concentration is increased, theintensities of the spectral curves increase also. At 0.01 molarity, thespectral curve at 3,460 cm⁻¹ is the only prominent frequency. However,at 0.15 molarity, the curves at 3,370 and 3,300 cm⁻¹ are also prominent.

As the concentration of a chemical species is changed, the spectralcharacter of that species in the reaction mixture changes also. Supposethat 3,300 and 3,370 cm⁻¹ are important frequencies for a desiredreaction pathway. At low concentrations the desired reaction pathwaywill not occur. However, if the concentrations are increased (and hencethe intensities of the relevant frequencies) the reaction will proceeddown the desired pathway. Concentration is also related to solvents,support structures, poisons and promoters, as previously discussed.

The Combined Effects OT Temperature, Surface Area, Catalyst Size andShape, Solvents, Support Materials, Poisons, Promoters and Concentration

From the Sections mentioned above, it is clear that chemical orelectrochemical activity (e.g., reactions at the anode, cathode and/orelectrolyte) in, for example, fuel cell reaction systems is a functionof many factors. Further factors that also affect reactions arediscussed in the additional Sections which follow, however, theinterplay of the above-mentioned factors warrants a specific focus.

FIGS. 82 a and 82 b show diagramatic views in perspective of twodifferent representative Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)10. In each of these fuel cells 10, hydrogen gas (H₂) 11 is the fuel andoxygen 12 or oxygen from the air 12 reacts with hydrogen ions, andelectrons, to form water at the cathode 13. The reaction at the anode 14involves the conversion of H₂ gas into H⁺ ions or protons. Power orcurrent can be collected from the electrodes 13, 14, as shown in FIG. 82a, or from current collectors 15, 16, as shown in FIG. 82 b.

FIG. 83 shows a diagramatic view, in perspective, of a tubular solidoxide fuel cell (SOFC) 10. Solid oxide fuel cells 10 can besubstantially planar, like those cells shown in FIG. 82 a and 82 b, butare often formed into tubular shapes, as shown in FIG. 83.

FIG. 84 shows a diagramatic perspective view of a typicalmembrane/electrode assembly (MEA) in a PEMFC. The polymer electrolytemembrane is represented by 17, the cathode by 13 and the anode by 14.

FIG. 85 a shows the MEA of FIG. 84 surrounded by a suitable anodebacking layer 19 and a suitable cathode backing layer 18. FIG. 85 b is adiagramatic cross-section of the area “C” shown in FIG. 85 a. Electrodeparticles 20 assist in supporting the catalyst particle 21.

FIG. 86 a is a schematic view of the area “E” shown in FIG. 85 b.However, it should be noted that only a single line of electrodeparticles 20 are represented in FIG. 86 a, whereas two substantiallyparallel lines of electrode particles 20 are shown in FIG. 85 b. Theelectrode particles are again represented by 20 and the catalystparticles are represented by 21.

FIG. 86 b is a schematic view of the area defined by the intersectionbetween the lines represented by “F” with the area “E” of FIG. 85 b.FIG. 86 b show that some of the electrolyte 17 may be located in thearea denoted 17′.

FIG. 87 is an exploded view of another fuel cell showing an integralanode/cathode/electrolyte assembly in contact with a bipolar plate oneach side thereof, said bipolar plate containing a flow field therein.

FIG. 88 shows a diagramatic perspective view of how a plurality of fuelcells shown in FIG. 82 b can be connected together.

From the disclosure herein, it should now be understood by an artisan ofordinary skill that many factors influence the numerous chemical and orelectrochemical reactions in a fuel cell reaction system as well asthose reactions in, for example, a reformer. For example, reference ismade to FIG. 86 b which schematically shows the representativepositioning of catalyst particles 21 relative to electrode particles 20(e.g., the particles 20 forming part of the anode 14 shown in, forexample, FIGS. 82 a and 82 b). The catalyst particles 21 are capable ofbeing favorably or unfavorably influenced by the anode backing layer 19(as well as any impurities therein or any impurities transmitted in theporous channels 22 contained therein). The catalyst particles 21 arealso capable of being favorably or unfavorably influenced by thecomposition of the electrolyte 17. Still further, the catalyst particlesare capable of being favorably or unfavorably influenced by thecomposition of the electrode particles 20 (e.g., graphite or carbon) aswell as their respective sizes and shapes. Moreover, as stated elsewhereherein, the catalyst particles 21 are also capable of being influencedby temperature, pressure, etc. Accordingly the spectral energy patternof the catalyst particles 21 is a function of all environmental reactionconditions which interact with the catalyst particles 21. Thus, thespectral energy pattern which emanates from the catalyst particles 21shown in, for example, FIG. 86 b, will be different from the spectralenergy pattern which emanates from the same catalyst particles 21suspended in a vacuum.

Accordingly, the present invention teaches that a catalyst of similarsize and shape may behave differently (e.g., emit different spectralenergy patterns) depending on a variety of factors that are external tothe physical catalyst. Thus, in order to maximize the effects of aparticular physical catalyst in a fuel cell reaction system, adjustmentsin composition, temperature, pressure and/or an applied spectral energypattern may be required in order to achieve a desirable resultant energypattern for the catalyst. Alternatively, a physical catalyst could bereplaced by using, for example, a spectral energy catalyst, which iscapable of providing the frequency or frequencies required to achievethe desired reaction (s) in the fuel cell reaction system.

Still further, specific components (e.g., structural components such aselectrolytes, electrodes, backing materials, current collectors and/orportions thereof) can be selected so that they resonate with each otherand/or with at least one participant in a fuel cell reaction system. Inother words, specific compositions, dopants, promoters, sizes, shapes,etc., of components and/or participants in a fuel cell reaction systemcan be engineered so that, for example, at least some resonance occurstherebetween. Such resonance can be very desirable when, for example,desirable energy patterns are increased or “pumped”, resulting in, forexample, increased reaction rates.

Thus, the teaching of the present invention provide a significant amountof understanding toward utilizing favorably electrochemical and chemicalreactions in fuel cell reaction systems.

Fine Structure Frequencies

The field of science concerned generally with measuring the frequenciesof energy and matter, known as spectroscopy, has already been discussedherein. Specifically, the three broad classes of atomic and molecularspectra were reviewed. Electronic spectra, which are due to electrontransitions, have frequencies primarily in the ultraviolet (UV),visible, and infrared (IR) regions, and occur in atoms and molecules.Vibrational spectra, which are due to, for example, bond motion betweenindividual atoms within molecules, are primarily in the IR, and occur inmolecules. Rotational spectra are due primarily to rotation of moleculesin space and have microwave or radiowave frequencies, and also occur inmolecules.

The previous discussion of various spectra and spectroscopy has beenoversimplified. There are actually at least three additional sets ofspectra, which comprise the spectrum discussed above herein, namely, thefine structure spectra and the hyperfine structure spectra and thesuperfine structure spectra. These spectra occur in atoms and molecules,and extend, for example, from the ultraviolet down to the low radioregions. These spectra are often mentioned in prior art chemistry andspectroscopy books typically as an aside, because prior art chemiststypically focus more on the traditional types of spectroscopy, namely,electronic, vibrational, and rotational.

The fine and hyperfine spectra are quite prevalent in the areas ofphysics and radio astronomy. For example, cosmologists map the locationsof interstellar clouds of hydrogen, and collect data regarding theorigins of the universe by detecting signals from outerspace, forexample, at 1.420 GHz, a microwave frequency which is one of thehyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen. Most of the largedatabases concerning the microwave and radio frequencies of moleculesand atoms have been developed by astronomers and physicists, rather thanby chemists. This apparent gap between the use by chemists andphysicists, of the fine and hyperfine spectra in chemistry, hasapparently resulted in prior art chemists not giving much, if any,attention to these potentially useful spectra.

Referring again to FIGS. 9 a and 9 b, the Balmer series (i.e., frequencycurve II), begins with a frequency of 456 THz (see FIG. 30 a). Closerexamination of this individual frequency shows that instead of therebeing just one crisp narrow curve at 456 THz, there are really sevendifferent curves very close together that comprise the curve at 456 THz.The seven (7) different curves are fine structure frequencies. FIG. 30 bshows the emission spectrum for the 456 THz curve in hydrogen. Ahigh-resolution laser saturation spectrum, shown in FIG. 31, gives evenmore detail. These seven different curves, which are positioned veryclose together, are generally referred to as a multiplet.

Although there are seven different fine structure frequencies shown,these seven frequencies are grouped around two major frequencies. Theseare the two, tall, relatively high intensity curves shown in FIG. 30 b.These two high intensity curves are also shown in FIG. 31 at zero cm⁻¹(456.676 THz), and at relative wavenumber 0.34 cm⁻¹ (456.686 THz). Whatappears to be a single frequency of (456 THz), is actually composedpredominantly of two slightly different frequencies (456.676 and 456.686THz), and the two frequencies are typically referred to as doublet andthe frequencies are said to be split. The difference or split betweenthe two predominant frequencies in the hydrogen 456 THz doublet is 0.010THz (100 THz) or 0.34 cm⁻¹ wavenumbers. This difference frequency, 10GHz, is called the fine splitting frequency for the 456 THz frequency ofhydrogen.

Thus, the individual frequencies that are typically shown in ordinaryelectronic spectra are composed of two or more distinct frequenciesspaced very close together. The distinct frequencies spaced very closetogether are called fine structure frequencies. The difference, betweentwo fine structure frequencies that are split apart by a very slightamount, is a fine splitting frequency (see FIG. 32 which shows f₁ and f₂which comprise f₀ and which are shown as underneath f₀. The differencebetween f₁ and f₂ is known as the fine splitting frequency). This“difference” between two fine structure frequencies is important becausesuch a difference between any two frequencies is a heterodyne.

Almost all the hydrogen frequencies shown in FIGS. 9 a and 9 b aredoublets or multiplets. This means that almost all the hydrogenelectronic spectrum frequencies have fine structure frequencies and finesplitting frequencies (which means that these heterodynes are availableto be used as spectral catalysts, if desired). The present inventiondiscloses that these “differences” or heterodynes can be quite usefulfor certain reactions. However, prior to discussing the use of theseheterodynes, in the present invention, more must be understood aboutthese heterodynes. Some of the fine splitting frequencies (i.e.,heterodynes) for hydrogen are listed in Table 3. These fine splittingheterodynes range from the microwave down into the upper reaches of theradio frequency region.

TABLE 3 Fine Splitting Frequencies for Hydrogen Fine Frequency (THz)Orbital Wavenumber (cm⁻¹) Splitting Frequency 2,466 2p 0.365  10.87 GHz456 n2→3 0.340  10.02 GHz 2,923 3p 0.108  3.23 GHz 2,923 3d 0.036  1.06GHz 3,082 4p 0.046  1.38 GHz 3,082 4d 0.015 448.00 MHz 3,082 4f 0.008239.00 MHz

There are more than 23 fine splitting frequencies (i.e., heterodynes)for just the first series or curve I in hydrogen. Lists of the finesplitting heterodynes can be found, for example, in the classic 1949reference “Atomic Energy Levels” by Charlotte Moore. This reference alsolists 133 fine splitting heterodyned intervals for carbon, whosefrequencies range from 14.1 THz (473.3 cm⁻¹) down to 12.2. GHz (0.41cm⁻¹). Oxygen has 287 fine splitting heterodynes listed from 15.9 THz(532.5 cm−1) down to 3.88 GHz (0.13 cm⁻¹). The 23 platinum finesplitting intervals detailed are from 23.3 THz (775.9 cm⁻¹) to 8.62 THzin frequency (287.9 cm⁻¹).

Diagrammatically, the magnification and resolution of an electronicfrequency into several closely spaced fine frequencies is depicted inFIG. 33. The electronic orbit is designated by the orbital number n=0,1, 2, etc. The fine structure is designated as α. A quantum diagram forthe hydrogen fine structure is shown in FIG. 34. Specifically, shown isthe fine structure of the n=1 and n=2 levels of the hydrogen atom. FIG.35 shows the multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels ofcarbon, oxygen, and fluorine, as represented by “C”, “O” and “F”,respectively.

In addition to the fine splitting frequencies for atoms (i.e.,heterodynes), molecules also have similar fine structure frequencies.The origin and derivation for molecular fine structure and splitting isdifferent from that for atoms, however, the graphical and practicalresults are quite similar. In atoms, the fine structure frequencies aresaid to result from the interaction of the spinning electron with its'own magnetic field. Basically, this means the electron cloud of a singleatomic sphere, rotating and interacting with its' own magnetic field,produces the atomic fine structure frequencies. The prior art refers tothis phenomena as “spin-orbit coupling”. For molecules, the finestructure frequencies correspond to the actual rotational frequencies ofthe electronic or vibrational frequencies. So the fine structurefrequencies for atoms and molecules both result from rotation. In thecase of atoms, it is the atom spinning and rotating around itself, muchthe way the earth rotates around its axis. In the case of molecules, itis the molecule spinning and rotating through space.

FIG. 36 shows the infrared absorption spectrum of the SF₆ vibration bandnear 28.3 THz (10.6 μm wavelength, wavenumber 948 cm⁻¹) of the SF₆molecule. The molecule is highly symmetrical and rotates somewhat like atop. The spectral tracing was obtained with a high resolution gratingspectrometer. There is a broad band between 941 and 952 cm⁻¹ (28.1 and28.5 THz) with three sharp spectral curves at 946, 947, and 948 cm⁻¹(28.3, 28.32, and 23.834 THz).

FIG. 37 a shows a narrow slice being taken from between 949 and 950cm⁻¹, which is blown up to show more detail in FIG. 37 b. A tunablesemiconductor diode laser was used to obtain the detail. There are manymore spectral curves which appear when the spectrum is reviewed in finerdetail. These curves are called the fine structure frequencies for thismolecule. The total energy of an atom or molecule is the sum of its'electronic, vibrational, and rotational energies. Thus, the simplePlanck equation discussed previously herein:E=hvcan be rewritten as follows:E=E _(e) +E _(v) +E _(r)where E is the total energy, E_(e) is the electronic energy, E_(v) isthe vibrational energy, and E_(r) is the rotational energy.Diagrammatically, this equation is shown in FIG. 38 for molecules. Theelectronic energy, E_(e), involves a change in the orbit of one of theelectrons in the molecule. It is designated by the orbital number n=0,1, 2, 3, etc. The vibrational energy, E_(v), is produced by a change inthe vibration rate between two atoms within the molecule, and isdesignated by a vibrational number v=1, 2, 3, etc. Lastly, therotational energy, E_(r), is the energy of rotation caused by themolecule rotating around its' center of mass. The rotational energy isdesignated by the quantum number J=1, 2, and 3, etc., as determined fromangular momentum equations.

Thus, by examining the vibrational frequencies of SF₆ in more detail,the fine structure molecular frequencies become apparent. These finestructure frequencies are actually produced by the molecular rotations,“J”, as a subset of each vibrational frequency. Just as the rotationallevels “J” are substantially evenly separated in FIG. 38, they are alsosubstantially evenly separated when plotted as frequencies.

This concept may be easier to understand by viewing some additionalfrequency diagrams. For example, FIG. 39 a shows the pure rotationalabsorption spectrum for gaseous hydrogen-chloride and FIG. 39 b showsthe same spectrum at low resolution. In FIG. 39 a, the separate waves,that look something like teeth on a “comb”, correspond to the individualrotational frequencies. The complete wave (i.e., that wave comprisingthe whole comb) that extends in frequency from 20 to 500 cm⁻¹corresponds to the entire vibrational frequency. At low resolution ormagnification, this set of rotational frequencies appear to be a singlefrequency peaking at about 20 cm⁻¹ (598 GHz) (see FIG. 39 b). This isvery similar to the way atomic frequencies such as the 456 THz hydrogenfrequency appear (i.e., just one frequency at low resolution, that turnout to be several different frequencies at higher magnification).

In FIG. 40, the rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structure) of hydrogencyanide is shown, where “J” is the rotational level. Note again, theregular spacing of the rotational levels. (Note that this spectrum isoriented opposite of what is typical). This spectrum uses transmissionrather than emission on the horizontal Y-axis, thus, intensity increasesdownward on the Y-axis, rather than upwards.

Additionally, FIG. 41 shows the v₁-v₅ vibrational bands for FCCF (wherev₁ is vibrational level 1 and v₅ vibrational level 5) which includes aplurality of rotational frequencies. All of the fine sawtooth spikes arethe fine structure frequencies which correspond to the rotationalfrequencies. Note the substantially regular spacing of the rotationalfrequencies. Also note, the undulating pattern of the rotationalfrequency intensity, as well as the alternating pattern of therotational frequency intensities.

Consider the actual rotational frequencies (i.e., fine structurefrequencies) for the ground state of carbon monoxide listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Rotational Frequencies and Derived Rotational Constant for CO inthe Ground State J Transition Frequency (MHz) Frequency (GHz) 0 → 1115,271.204 115 1 → 2 230,537.974 230 2 → 3 345,795.989 346 3 → 4461,040.811 461 4 → 5 576,267.934 576 5 → 6 691,472.978 691 6 → 7806,651.719 807 Where; B_(o) = 57,635.970 MHz

Each of the rotational frequencies is regularly spaced at approximately115 GHz apart. Prior art quantum theorists would explain this regularspacing as being due to the fact that the rotational frequencies arerelated to Planck's constant and the moment of inertia (i.e., center ofmass for the molecule) by the equation:

$B = \frac{h}{8\;\pi^{2}I}$where B is the rotational constant, h is Planck's constant, and I is themoment of inertia for the molecule. From there the prior art establisheda frequency equation for the rotational levels that corresponds to:f=2B(J+1)where f is the frequency, B is the rotational constant, and J is therotational level. Thus, the rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structurespectrum) for a molecule turns out to be a harmonic series of lines withthe frequencies all spaced or split (i.e., heterodyned) by the sameamount. This amount has been referred to in the prior art as “2B” and“B” has been referred to as the “rotational constant”. In existingcharts and databases of molecular frequencies, “B” is usually listed asa frequency such as MHz. This is graphically represented for the firstfour rotational frequencies for CO in FIG. 42.

This fact is interesting for several reasons. The rotational constant“B”, listed in many databases, is equal to one half of the differencebetween rotational frequencies for a molecule. That means that B is thefirst subharmonic frequency, to the fundamental frequency “2B”, which isthe heterodyned difference between all the rotational frequencies. Therotational constant B listed for carbon monoxide is 57.6 GHz (57,635.970MHz). This is basically half of the 115 GHz difference between therotational frequencies. Thus, according to the present invention, if itis desired to stimulate a molecule's rotational levels, the amount “2B”can be used, because it is the fundamental first generation heterodyne.Alternatively, the same “B” can be used because “B” corresponds to thefirst subharmonic of that heterodyne.

Further, the prior art teaches that if it is desired to use microwavesfor stimulation, the microwave frequencies used will be restricted tostimulating levels at or near the ground state of the molecule (i.e.,n=0 in FIG. 38). The prior art teaches that as you progress upward inFIG. 38 to the higher electronic and vibrational levels, the requiredfrequencies will correspond to the infrared, visible, and ultravioletregions. However, the prior art is wrong about this point.

By referring to FIG. 38 again, it is clear that the rotationalfrequencies are evenly spaced out no matter what electronic orvibrational level is under scrutiny. The even spacing shown in FIG. 38is due to the rotational frequencies being evenly spaced as progressionis made upwards through all the higher vibrational and electroniclevels. Table 5 lists the rotational frequencies for lithium fluoride(LiF) at several different rotational and vibrational levels.

TABLE 5 Rotational Frequencies for Lithium Fluoride (LiF) VibrationalLevel Rotational Transition Frequency (MHz) 0 0 → 1  89,740.46 0 1 → 2179,470.35 0 2 → 3 269,179.18 0 3 → 4 358,856.19 0 4 → 5 448,491.07 0 5→ 6 538,072.65 1 0 → 1  88,319.18 1 1 → 2 176,627.91 1 2 → 3 264,915.791 3 → 4 353,172.23 1 4 → 5 441,386.83 2 0 → 1  86,921.20 2 1 → 2173,832.04 2 2 → 3 260,722.24 2 3 → 4 347,581.39 3 1 → 2 171,082.27 3 2→ 3 256,597.84 3 3 → 4 342,082.66

It is clear from Table 5 that the differences between rotationalfrequencies, no matter what the vibrational level, is about 86,000 toabout 89,000 MHz (i.e., 86-89 GHz). Thus, according to the presentinvention, by using a microwave frequency between about 86,000 MHz and89,000 MHz, the molecule can be stimulated from the ground state levelall the way up to its' highest energy levels. This effect has not beeneven remotely suggested by the prior art. Specifically, the rotationalfrequencies of molecules can be manipulated in a unique manner. Thefirst rotational level has a natural oscillatory frequency (NOF) of89,740 MHz.

The second rotational level has an NOF of 179,470 MHz. Thus,NOF _(rotational 1→2) −NOF _(rotational 0→1)=SubtractedFrequency_(rotational 2−1);or179,470 MHz−89,740 MHz=89,730 MHz.

Thus, the present invention has discovered that the NOF's of therotational frequencies heterodyne by adding and subtracting in a mannersimilar to the manner that all frequencies heterodyne. Specifically, thetwo rotational frequencies heterodyne to produce a subtracted frequency.This subtracted frequency happens to be exactly twice as big as thederived rotational constant “B” listed in nuclear physics andspectroscopy manuals. Thus, when the first rotational frequency in themolecule is stimulated with the Subtracted Frequency_(rotational 2−1),the first rotational frequency will heterodyne (i.e., in this case add)with the NOF_(rotational 0→1) (i.e., first rotational frequency) toproduce NOF_(rotational 1→2), which is the natural oscillatory frequencyof the molecule's second rotational level. In other words:Subtracted Frequency_(rotational 2−1) +NOF _(rotational 0→1) =NOF_(rotational 1→2);or89,730 MHz+89,740 MHz=179,470 MHz

Since the present invention has disclosed that the rotationalfrequencies are actually evenly spaced harmonics, the subtractedfrequency will also add with the second level NOF to produce the thirdlevel NOF. The subtracted frequency will add with the third level NOF toproduce the fourth level NOF. This procedure can be repeated over andover. Thus, according to the present invention, by using one singlemicrowave frequency, it is possible to stimulate all the rotationallevels in a vibratory band.

Moreover, if all the rotational levels for a vibrational frequency areexcited, then the vibrational frequency will also be correspondinglyexcited. Further, if all the vibrational levels for an electronic levelare excited, then the electronic level will be excited as well. Thus,according to the teachings of the present invention, it is possible toexcite the highest levels of the electronic and vibrational structure ofa molecule by using a single microwave frequency. This is contrary tothe prior art teachings that the use of microwaves is restricted to theground state of the molecule. Specifically, if the goal is to resonatedirectly with an upper vibrational or electronic level, the prior artteaches that microwave frequencies can not be used. If, however,according to the present invention, a catalytic mechanism of action isinitiated by, for example, resonating with target species indirectlythrough heterodynes, then one or more microwave frequencies can be usedto energize at least one upper level vibrational or electronic state.Accordingly, by using the teachings of the present invention inconjunction with the simple processes of heterodyning it becomes readilyapparent that microwave frequencies are not limited to the ground statelevels of molecules.

The present invention has determined that catalysts can actuallystimulate target species indirectly by utilizing at least one heterodynefrequency (e.g., harmonic). However, catalysts can also stimulate thetarget species by direct resonance with at least one fundamentalfrequency of interest. However, the rotational frequencies can result inuse of both mechanisms. For example, FIG. 42 shows a graphicalrepresentation of fine structure spectrum showing the first fourrotational frequencies for CO in the ground state. The first rotationalfrequency for CO is 115 GHz. The heterodyned difference betweenrotational frequencies is also 115 GHz. The first rotational frequencyand the heterodyned difference between frequencies are identical. All ofthe upper level rotational frequencies are harmonics of the firstfrequency. This relationship is not as apparent when one deals only withthe rotational constant “B” of the prior art. However, frequency-basedspectral chemistry analyses, like those of the present invention, makessuch concepts easier to understand.

Examination of the first level rotational frequencies for LiF shows thatit is nearly identical to the heterodyned difference between it and thesecond level rotational frequency. The rotational frequencies aresequential harmonics of the first rotational frequency. Accordingly, ifa molecule is stimulated with a frequency equal to 2B (i.e., aheterodyned harmonic difference between rotational frequencies) thepresent invention teaches that energy will resonate with all the upperrotational frequencies indirectly through heterodynes, and resonatedirectly with the first rotational frequency. This is an importantdiscovery.

The prior art discloses a number of constants used in spectroscopy thatrelate in some way or another to the frequencies of atoms and molecule,just as the rotational constant “B” relates to the harmonic spacing ofrotational fine structure molecular frequencies. The alpha (α)rotation-vibration constant is a good example of this. The alpharotation-vibration frequency constant is related to slight changes inthe frequencies for the same rotational level, when the vibrationallevel changes. For example, FIG. 43 a shows the frequencies for the samerotational levels, but different vibrational levels for LiF. Thefrequencies are almost the same, but vary by a few percent between thedifferent vibrational levels.

Referring to FIG. 43 b, the differences between all the frequencies forthe various rotational transitions at different vibrational levels ofFIG. 43 a are shown. The rotational transition 0→1 in the top line ofFIG. 43 b has a frequency of 89,740.46 MHz at vibrational level 0. Atvibrational level 1, the 0→1 transition is 88,319.18 MHz. The differencebetween these two rotational frequencies is 1,421.28 MHz. At vibrationallevel 2, the 0→1 transition is 86,921.20 MHz. The difference between itand the vibrational level 1 frequency (88,319.18 MHz) is 1,397.98 MHz.These slight differences for the same J rotational level betweendifferent vibrational levels are nearly identical. For the J=0→1rotational level they center around a frequency of 1,400 MHz.

For the J=1→2 transition, the differences center around 2,800 Hz, andfor the J=2→3 transition, the differences center around 4,200 Hz. Thesedifferent frequencies of 1,400, 2,800 and 4,200 Hz etc., are allharmonics of each other. Further, they are all harmonics of the alpharotation-vibration constant. Just as the actual molecular rotationalfrequencies are harmonics of the rotational constant B, the differencesbetween the rotational frequencies are harmonics of the alpharotation-vibration constant. Accordingly, if a molecule is stimulatedwith a frequency equal to the alpha vibration-rotation frequencies, thepresent invention teaches that energy will resonate with all therotational frequencies indirectly through heterodynes. This is animportant discovery.

Consider the rotational and vibrational states for the triatomicmolecule OCS shown in FIG. 44. FIG. 44 shows the same rotational level(J=1→2) for different vibrational states in the OCS molecule. For theground vibrational (000) level, J=1→2 transition; and the excitedvibrational state (100) J=1→2 transition, the difference between the twofrequencies is equal to 4× alpha₁ (4α₁). In another excited state, thefrequency difference between the ground vibrational (000) level, J=1→2transition, and the center of the two l-type doublets is 4× alpha₂(4α₂). In a higher excited vibrational state, the frequency differencebetween (000) and (02°0) is 8× alpha₂ (8α₂). Thus, it can be seen thatthe rotation-vibration constants “α” are actually harmonics of molecularfrequencies. Thus, according to the present invention, stimulating amolecule with an “α” frequency, or a harmonic of “α”, will eitherdirectly resonate with or indirectly heterodyne harmonically withvarious rotational-vibrational frequencies of the molecule.

Another interesting constant is the l-type doubling constant. Thisconstant is also shown in FIG. 44. Specifically, FIG. 44 shows therotational transition J=1→2 for the triatomic molecule OCS. Just as theatomic frequencies are sometimes split into doublets or multiplets, therotational frequencies are also sometimes split into doublets. Thedifference between them is called the l-type doubling constant. Theseconstants are usually smaller (i.e., of a lower frequency) than the aconstants. For the OCS molecule, the a constants are 20.56 and 10.56 MHzwhile the l-type doubling constant is 6.3 MHz. These frequencies are allin the radiowave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

As discussed previously herein, energy is transferred by two fundamentalfrequency mechanisms. If frequencies are substantially the same ormatch, then energy transfers by direct resonance. Energy can alsotransfer indirectly by heterodyning, (i.e., the frequenciessubstantially match after having been added or subtracted with anotherfrequency). Further, as previously stated, the direct or indirectresonant frequencies do not have to match exactly. If they are merelyclose, significant amounts of energy will still transfer. Any of theseconstants or frequencies that are related to molecules or other mattervia heterodynes, can be used to transfer, for example, energy to thematter and hence can directly interact with the matter.

In the reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form water,the present invention teaches that the energizing of the reactionintermediates of atomic hydrogen and the hydroxy radical are crucial tosustaining the reaction. In this regard, the physical catalyst platinumenergizes both reaction intermediates by directly and indirectlyresonating with them. Platinum also energizes the intermediates atmultiple energy levels, creating the conditions for energyamplification. The present invention also teaches how to copy platinum'smechanism of action by making use of atomic fine structure frequencies.

The invention has previously discussed resonating with the finestructure frequencies with only slight variations between thefrequencies (e.g., 456.676 and 456.686 THz). However, indirectlyresonating with the fine structure frequencies, is a significantdifference. Specifically, by using the fine splitting frequencies, whichare simply the differences or heterodynes between the fine structurefrequencies, the present invention teaches that indirect resonance canbe achieved. By examining the hydrogen 456 THz fine structure and finesplitting frequencies (see, for example, FIGS. 30 and 31 and Table 3many heterodynes are shown). In other words, the difference between thefine structure frequencies can be calculated as follows:456.686 THz−456.676 THz=0.0102 THz=10.2 GHzThus, if hydrogen atoms are subjected to 10.2 GHz electromagnetic energy(i.e., energy corresponding to microwaves), then the 456 THz electronicspectrum frequency is energized by resonating with it indirectly. Inother words, the 10.2 GHz will add to 456.676 THz to produce theresonant frequency of 456.686 THz. The 10.2 GHz will also subtract fromthe 456.686 THz to produce the resonant frequency of 456.676 THz. Thus,by introducing 10.2 GHz to a hydrogen atom, the hydrogen atom is excitedat the 456 THz frequency. A microwave frequency can be used to stimulatean electronic level.

According to the present invention, it is also possible to use acombination of mimicked catalyst mechanisms. For example, it is possibleto: 1) resonate with the hydrogen atom frequencies indirectly throughheterodynes (i.e., fine splitting frequencies); and/or 2) resonate withthe hydrogen atom at multiple frequencies. Such multiple resonatingcould occur using a combination of microwave frequencies eithersimultaneously, in sequence, and/or in chirps or bursts. For example,the individual microwave fine splitting frequencies for hydrogen of10.87 GHz, 10.2 GHz, 3.23 GHz, 1.38 GHz, and 1.06 GHz could be used in asequence. Further, there are many fine splitting frequencies forhydrogen that have not been expressly included herein, thus, dependingon the frequency range of equipment available, the present inventionprovides a means for tailoring the chosen frequencies to thecapabilities of the available equipment. Thus, the flexibility accordingto the teachings of the present invention is enormous.

Another method to deliver multiple electromagnetic energy frequenciesaccording to the present invention, is to use a lower frequency as acarrier wave for a higher frequency. This can be done, for example, byproducing 10.2 GHz EM energy in short bursts, with the bursts coming ata rate of about 239 MHz. Both of these frequencies are fine splittingfrequencies for hydrogen. This can also be achieved by continuouslydelivering EM energy and by varying the amplitude at a rate of about 239MHz. These techniques can be used alone or in combination with thevarious other techniques disclosed herein.

Thus, by mimicking one or more mechanisms of action of catalysts and bymaking use of the atomic fine structure and splitting frequencies, it ispossible to energize upper levels of atoms using microwave and radiowavefrequencies. Accordingly, by selectively energizing or targetingparticular atoms, it is possible to catalyze and guide desirablereactions to desired end products. Depending on the circumstances, theoption to use lower frequencies may have many advantages. Lowerfrequencies typically have much better penetration into large reactionspaces and volumes, and may be better suited to large-scale industrialapplications. Lower frequencies may be easier to deliver with portable,compact equipment, as opposed to large, bulky equipment which delivershigher frequencies (e.g., lasers). The choice of frequencies of aspectral catalyst may be for as simple a reason as to avoid interferencefrom other sources of EM energy. Thus, according to the presentinvention, an understanding of the basic processes of heterodyning andfine structure splitting frequencies confers greater flexibility indesigning and applying spectral energy catalysts in a targeted manner.Specifically, rather than simply reproducing the spectral pattern of aphysical catalyst, the present invention teaches that is possible tomake full use of the entire range of frequencies in the electromagneticspectrum, so long as the teachings of the present invention arefollowed. Thus, certain desirable frequencies can be applied while othernot so desirable frequencies could be left out of an applied spectralenergy catalyst targeted to a particular participant and/or component inthe cell reaction system.

As a further example, reference is again made to the hydrogen and oxygenreaction for the formation of water. If it is desired to catalyze thewater reaction by duplicating the catalyst's mechanism of action in themicrowave region, the present invention teaches that several options areavailable. Another such option is use of the knowledge that platinumenergizes the reaction intermediates of the hydroxy radical. In additionto the hydrogen atom, the B frequency for the hydroxy radical is 565.8GHz. That means that the actual heterodyned difference between therotational frequencies is 2B, or 1,131.6 GHz. Accordingly, such afrequency could be utilized to achieve excitement of the hydroxy radicalintermediate.

Further, the a constant for the hydroxy radical is 21.4 GHz.Accordingly, this frequency could also be applied to energizing thehydroxy radical. Thus, by introducing hydrogen and oxygen gases into achamber and irradiating the gases with 21.4 GHz, water will be formed.This particular gigahertz energy is a harmonic heterodyne of therotational frequencies for the same rotational level but differentvibrational levels. The heterodyned frequency energizes all therotational frequencies, which energize the vibrational levels, whichenergize the electronic frequencies, which catalyze the reaction.Accordingly, the aforementioned reaction could be catalyzed or targetedwith a spectral catalyst applied at several applicable frequencies, allof which match with one or more frequencies in one or more participantsand thus permit energy to transfer.

Still further, delivery of frequencies of 565.8 GHz, or even 1,131.6GHz, would result in substantially all of the rotational levels in themolecule becoming energized, from the ground state all the way up. Thisapproach copies a catalyst mechanism of action in two ways. The firstway is by energizing the hydroxy radical and sustaining a crucialreaction intermediate to catalyze the formation of water. The secondmechanism copied from the catalyst is to energize multiple levels in themolecule. Because the rotational constant “B” relates to the rotationalfrequencies, heterodynes occur at all levels in the molecule. Thus,using the frequency “B” energizes all levels in the molecule. Thispotentiates the establishment of an energy amplification system such asthat which occurs with the physical catalyst platinum.

Still further, if a molecule was energized with a frequencycorresponding to an l-type doubling constant, such frequency could beused in a substantially similar manner in which a fine splittingfrequency from an atomic spectrum is used. The difference between thetwo frequencies in a doublet is a heterodyne, and energizing the doubletwith its' heterodyne frequency (i.e., the splitting frequency) wouldenergize the basic frequency and catalyze the reaction.

A still further example utilizes a combination of frequencies for atomicfine structure. For instance, by utilizing a constant central frequencyof 1,131.6 GHz (i.e., the heterodyned difference between rotationalfrequencies for a hydroxy radical) with a vibrato varying around thecentral frequency by ±21.4 GHz (i.e., the a constant harmonic forvariations between rotational frequencies), use could be made of 1.131.6GHz EM energy in short bursts, with the bursts coming at a rate of 21.4GHz.

Since there is slight variation between rotational frequencies for thesame level, that frequency range can be used to construct bursts. Forexample, if the largest “B” is 565.8 GHz, then a rotational frequencyheterodyne corresponds to 1,131.6 GHz. If the smallest “B” is 551.2 GHz,this corresponds to a rotational frequency heterodyne of 1,102 GHz.Thus, “chirps” or bursts of energy starting at 1,100 GHz and increasingin frequency to 1,140 GHz, could be used. In fact, the transmitter couldbe set to “chirp” or burst at a rate of 21.4 GHz.

In any event, there are many ways to make use of the atomic andmolecular fine structure frequencies, with their attendant heterodynesand harmonics. An understanding of catalyst mechanisms of action enablesone of ordinary skill armed with the teachings of the present inventionto utilize a spectral catalyst from the high frequency ultraviolet andvisible light regions, down into the sometimes more manageable microwaveand radiowave regions. Moreover, the invention enables an artisan ofordinary skill to calculate and/or determine the effects of microwaveand radiowave energies on chemical reactions and/or reaction pathways.

Hyperfine Frequencies

Hyperfine structure frequencies are similar to the fine structurefrequencies. Fine structure frequencies can be seen by magnifying aportion of a standard frequency spectrum. Hyperfine frequencies can beseen by magnifying a portion of a fine structure spectrum. Finestructure splitting frequencies occur at lower frequencies than theelectronic spectra, primarily in the infrared and microwave regions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum. Hyperfine splitting frequencies occur ateven lower frequencies than the fine structure spectra, primarily in themicrowave and radio wave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Finestructure frequencies are generally caused by at least the electroninteracting with its' own magnetic field. Hyperfine frequencies aregenerally caused by at least the electron interacting with the magneticfield of the nucleus.

FIG. 36 shows the rotation-vibration band frequency spectra for an SF₆molecule. The rotation-vibration band and fine structure are shown againin FIG. 45. However, the fine structure frequencies are seen bymagnifying a small section of the standard vibrational band spectrum(i.e., the lower portion of FIG. 45 shows some of the fine structurefrequencies). In many respects, looking at fine structure frequencies islike using a magnifying glass to look at a standard spectrum.Magnification of what looks like a flat and uninteresting portion of astandard vibrational frequency band shows many more curves with lowerfrequency splitting. These many other curves are the fine structurecurves. Similarly, by magnifying a small and seemingly uninterestingportion of the fine structure spectrum of the result is yet anotherspectrum of many more curves known as the hyperfine spectrum.

A small portion (i.e., from zero to 300) of the SF₆ fine structurespectrum is magnified in FIG. 46. The hyperfine spectrum includes manycurves split part by even lower frequencies. This time the finestructure spectrum was magnified instead of the regular vibrationalspectrum. What is found is even more curves, even closer together. FIGS.47 a and 47 b show a further magnification of the two curves marked withasterisks (i.e., “*” and “**”) in FIG. 46.

What appears to be a single crisp curve in FIG. 46, turns out to be aseries of several curves spaced very close together. These are thehyperfine frequency curves. Accordingly, the fine structure spectra iscomprised of several more curves spaced very close together. These othercurves spaced even closer together correspond to the hyperfinefrequencies.

FIGS. 47 a and 47 b show that the spacing of the hyperfine frequencycurves are very close together and at somewhat regular intervals. Thesmall amount that the hyperfine curves are split apart is called thehyperfine splitting frequency. The hyperfine splitting frequency is alsoa heterodyne. This concept is substantially similar to the concept ofthe fine splitting frequency. The difference between two curves that aresplit apart is called a splitting frequency. As before, the differencebetween two curves is referred to as a heterodyne frequency. So,hyperfine splitting frequencies are all heterodynes of hyperfinefrequencies.

Because the hyperfine frequency curves result from a magnification ofthe fine structure curves, the hyperfine splitting frequencies occur atonly a fraction of the fine structure splitting frequencies. The finestructure splitting frequencies are really just several curves, spacedvery close together around the regular spectrum frequency. Magnificationof fine structure splitting frequencies results in hyperfine splittingfrequencies. The hyperfine splitting frequencies are really just severalmore curves, spaced very close together. The closer together the curvesare, the smaller the distance or frequency separating them. Now thedistance separating any two curves is a heterodyne frequency. So, thecloser together any two curves are, the smaller (lower) is theheterodyne frequency between them. The distance between hyperfinesplitting frequencies (i.e., the amount that hyperfine frequencies aresplit apart) is the hyperfine splitting frequency. It can also be calleda constant or interval.

The electronic spectrum frequency of hydrogen is 2,466 THz. The 2,466THz frequency is made up of fine structure curves spaced 10.87 GHz(0.01087 THz) apart. Thus, the fine splitting frequency is 10.87 GHz.Now the fine structure curves are made up of hyperfine curves. Thesehyperfine curves are spaced just 23.68 and 59.21 MHz apart. Thus, 23 and59 MHz are both hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen. Otherhyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen include 2.71, 4.21, 7.02,17.55, 52.63, 177.64, and 1,420.0 MHz. The hyperfine splittingfrequencies are spaced even closer together than the fine structuresplitting frequencies, so the hyperfine splitting frequencies aresmaller and lower than the fine splitting frequencies.

Thus, the hyperfine splitting frequencies are lower than the finesplitting frequencies. This means that rather than being in the infraredand microwave regions, as the fine splitting frequencies can be, thehyperfine splitting frequencies are in the microwave and radiowaveregions. These lower frequencies are in the MHz (10⁶ hertz) and Khz (10³hertz) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Several of the hyperfinesplitting frequencies for hydrogen are shown in FIG. 48. (FIG. 48 showshyperfine structure in the n=2 to n=3 transition of hydrogen).

FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine frequencies for CH₃I. These frequencies area magnification of the fine structure frequencies for that molecule.Since fine structure frequencies for molecules are actually rotationalfrequencies, what is shown is actually the hyperfine splitting ofrotational frequencies. FIG. 49 shows the hyperfine splitting of justthe J=1→2 rotational transition. The splitting between the two tallestcurves is less than 100 MHz.

FIG. 50 shows another example of the molecule ClCN. This set ofhyperfine frequencies is from the J=1→2 transition of the groundvibrational state for ClCN. Notice that the hyperfine frequencies areseparated by just a few megahertz, (MHz) and in a few places by lessthan even one megahertz.

The energy-level diagram and spectrum of the J=½→3/2 rotationaltransition for NO is shown if FIG. 51.

In FIG. 52, the hyperfine splitting frequencies for NH₃ are shown.Notice that the frequencies are spaced so close together that the scaleat the bottom is in kilohertz (Kc/sec). The hyperfine features of thelines were obtained using a beam spectrometer.

Just as with fine splitting frequencies, the hyperfine splittingfrequencies are heterodynes of atomic and molecular frequencies.Accordingly, if an atom or molecule is stimulated with a frequency equalto a hyperfine splitting frequency (a heterodyned difference betweenhyperfine frequencies), the present invention teaches that the energywill equal to a hyperfine splitting frequency will resonate with thehyperfine frequencies indirectly through heterodynes. The relatedrotational, vibrational, and/or electronic energy levels will, in turn,be stimulated. This is an important discovery. It allows one to use moreradio and microwave frequencies to selectively stimulate and targetspecific cell reaction system components (e.g., atomic hydrogenintermediates can be stimulated with, for example, (2.55, 23.68 59.2and/or 1,420 MHz).

Hyperfine frequencies, like fine frequencies, also contain features suchas doublets. Specifically, in a region where one would expect to findonly a single hyperfine frequency curve, there are two curves instead,typically, one on either side of the location where a single hyperfinefrequency was expected. Hyperfine doubling is shown in FIGS. 53 and 54.This hyperfine spectrum is also from NH₃. FIG. 53 corresponds to the J=3rotational level and FIG. 54 corresponds to the J=4 rotational level.The doubling can be seen most easily in the J=3 curves (i.e., FIG. 53).There are two sets of short curves, a tall one, and then two more shortsets. Each of the short sets of curves is generally located where onewould expect to find just one curve. There are two curves instead, oneon either side of the main curve location. Each set of curves is ahyperfine doublet.

There are different notations to indicate the source of the doublingsuch as l-type doubling, K doubling, and A doubling, etc., and they allhave their own constants or intervals. Without going into the detailedtheory behind the formation of various types of doublets, the intervalbetween any two hyperfine multiplet curves is also a heterodyne, andthus all of these doubling constants represent frequency heterodynes.Accordingly, those frequency heterodynes (i.e., hyperfine constants) canalso be used as spectral energy catalysts according to the presentinvention.

Specifically, a frequency in an atom or molecule can be stimulateddirectly or indirectly. If the goal was to stimulate the 2,466 THzfrequency of hydrogen for some reason, then, for example, an ultravioletlaser could irradiate the hydrogen with 2,466 THz electromagneticradiation. This would stimulate the atom directly. However, if such alaser was unavailable, then hydrogen's fine structure splittingfrequency of 10.87 GHz could be achieved with microwave equipment. Thegigahertz frequency would heterodyne (i.e., add or subtract) with thetwo closely spaced fine structure curves at 2,466, and stimulate the2,466 THz frequency band. This would stimulate the atom indirectly.

Still further, the atom could be stimulated by using the hyperfinesplitting frequency for hydrogen at 23.68 MHz as produced by radiowaveequipment. The 23.68 MHz frequency would heterodyne (i.e., add orsubtract) with the two closely spaced hyperfine frequency curves at2,466, and stimulate the fine structure curves at the 2,466 THz.Stimulation of the fine structure curves would in turn lead tostimulation of the 2,466 THz electronic frequency for the hydrogen atom.

Still further, additional hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogenin the radiowave and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrumcould also be used to stimulate the atom. For example, a radio wavepattern with 2.7 MHz, 4.2 MHz, 7 MHz, 18 MHz, 23 MHz, 52 MHz, and 59 MHzcould be used. This would stimulate several different hyperfinefrequencies of hydrogen, and it would stimulate them essentially all atthe same time. This would cause stimulation of the fine structurefrequencies, which in turn would stimulate the electronic frequencies inthe hydrogen atom.

Still further, depending on available equipment and/or design, and/orprocessing constraints, some delivery mode variations can also be used.For example, one of the lower frequencies could be a carrier frequencyfor the upper frequencies. A continuous frequency of 52 MHz could bevaried in amplitude at a rate of 2.7 MHz. Or, a 59 MHz frequency couldbe pulsed at a rate of 4.2 MHz. There are various ways in which thesefrequencies can be combined and/or delivered, including different waveshapes durations, intensity shapes, duty cycles, etc. Depending on whichof the hyperfine splitting frequencies are stimulated, the evolution of,for example, various and specific transients may be precisely tailoredand controlled, allowing precise control over cell reaction systemsusing the fine and/or hyperfine splitting frequencies.

Accordingly, a major point of the present invention is once it isunderstood the energy transfers when frequencies match, then determiningwhich frequencies are available for matching is the next step. Thisinvention discloses precisely how to achieve that goal. Interactionsbetween equipment limitations, processing constraints, etc., can decidewhich frequencies are best suited for a particular purpose. Thus, bothdirect resonance and indirect resonance are suitable approaches for theuse of spectral energy catalysts.

Electric Fields

Another means for modifying the spectral pattern of substances, is toexpose a substance to an electric field. Specifically, in the presenceof an electric field, spectral frequency lines of atoms and moleculescan be split, shifted, broadened, or changed in intensity. The effect ofan electric field on spectral lines is known as the “Stark Effect”, inhonor of its' discoverer, J. Stark. In 1913, Stark discovered that theBalmer series of hydrogen (i.e., curve II of FIGS. 9 a and 9 b) wassplit into several different components, while Stark was using a highelectric field in the presence of a hydrogen flame. In the interveningyears, Stark's original observation has evolved into a separate branchof spectroscopy, namely the study of the structure of atoms andmolecules by measuring the changes in their respective spectral linescaused by an electric field.

The electric field effects have some similarities to fine and hyperfinesplitting frequencies. Specifically, as previously discussed herein,fine structure and hyperfine structure frequencies, along with their lowfrequency splitting or coupling constants, were caused by interactionsinside the atom or molecule, between the electric field of the electronand the magnetic field of the electron or nucleus. Electric fieldeffects are similar, except that instead of the electric field comingfrom inside the atom, the electric field is applied from outside theatom. The Stark effect is primarily the interaction of an externalelectric field, from outside the atom or molecule, with the electric andmagnetic fields already established within the atom or molecule.

When examining electric field effects on atoms, molecules, ions and/orcomponents thereof, the nature of the electric field should also beconsidered (e.g., such as whether the electric field is static ordynamic). A static electric field may be produced by a direct current. Adynamic electric field is time varying, and may be produced by analternating current. If the electric field is from an alternatingcurrent, then the frequency of the alternating current compared to thefrequencies of the, for instance atom or molecule, should also beconsidered.

In atoms, an external electric field disturbs the charge distribution ofthe atom's electrons. This disturbance of the electron's own electricfield induces a dipole moment in it (i.e., slightly lopsided chargedistribution). This lopsided electron dipole moment then interacts withthe external electric field. In other words, the external electric fieldfirst induces a dipole moment in the electron field, and then interactswith the dipole. The end result is that the atomic frequencies becomesplit into several different frequencies. The amount the frequencies aresplit apart depends on the strength of the electric field. In otherwords, the stronger the electric field, the farther apart the splitting.

If the splitting varies directly with the electric field strength, thenit is called first order splitting (i.e., Δv=AF where Δv is thesplitting frequency, A is a constant and F is the electric fieldstrength. When the splitting varies with the square of the fieldstrength, it is called a second order or quadriatic effect (i.e.,Δv=BF²). One or both effects may be seen in various forms of matter. Forexample, the hydrogen atom exhibits first order Stark effects at lowelectric field strengths, and second order effects at high fieldstrengths. Other electric field effects which vary with the cube or thefourth power, etc., of the electric field strength are less studied, butproduce splitting frequencies nonetheless. A second order electric fieldeffect for potassium is shown in FIGS. 55 and 56. FIG. 55 shows theschematic dependence of the 4s and 5p energy levels on the electricfield. FIG. 56 shows a plot of the deviation from zero-field positionsof the 5p² P1/2.3/2←4s²S1/2 transition wavenumbers against the square ofthe electric field. Note that the frequency splitting or separation ofthe frequencies (i.e., deviation from zero-field wavenumber) varies withthe square of the electric field strength (v/cm)².

The mechanism for the Stark effect in molecules is simpler than theeffect is in atoms. Most molecules already have an electric dipolemoment (i.e., a slightly uneven charge distribution). The externalelectric field simply interacts with the electric dipole moment alreadyinside the molecule. The type of interaction, a first or a second orderStark effect, is different for differently shaped molecules. Forexample, most symmetric top molecules have first-order Stark effects.Asymmetric rotors typically have second-order Stark effects. Thus, inmolecules, as in atoms, the splitting or separation of the frequenciesdue to the external electric field, is proportional either to theelectric field strength itself, or to the square of the electric fieldstrength.

An example of this is shown in FIG. 57, which diagrams how frequencycomponents of the J=0→1 rotational transition for the molecule CH₃Clrespond to an external electric field. When the electric field is verysmall (e.g., less than 10 E² esu²/cm²), the primary effect is shiftingof the three rotational frequencies to higher frequencies. As the fieldstrength is increased (e.g., between 10 and 20 E² esu²/cm²), the threerotational frequencies split into five different frequencies. Withcontinued increases in the electric field strength, the now fivefrequencies continue to shift to even higher frequencies. Some of theintervals or differences between the five frequencies remain the sameregardless of the electric field strength, while other intervals becomeprogressively larger and higher. Thus, a heterodyned frequency mightstimulate splitting frequencies at one electric field strength, but notat another.

Another molecular example is shown in FIG. 58. (This is a diagram of theStark Effect in the same OCS molecule shown in FIG. 44 for the J=1→2).The J=1→2 rotational transition frequency is shown centered at zero onthe horizontal frequency axis in FIG. 58. That frequency centered atzero is a single frequency when there is no external electric field.When an electric field is added, however, the single rotationalfrequency splits into two. The stronger the electric field is, the widerthe splitting is between the two frequencies. One of the new frequenciesshifts up higher and higher, while the other frequency shifts lower andlower. Because the difference between the two frequencies changes whenthe electric field strength changes, a heterodyned splitting frequencymight stimulate the rotational level at one electric field strength, butnot at another. An electric field can effect the spectral frequencies ofreaction participants, and thus impact the spectral chemistry of areaction.

Broadening and shifting of spectral lines also occurs with theintermolecular Stark effect. The intermolecular Stark effect is producedwhen the electric field from surrounding atoms, ions, or molecules,affects the spectral emissions of the species under study. In otherwords, the external electric field comes from other atoms and moleculesrather than from a DC or AC current. The other atoms and molecules arein constant motion, and thus their electric fields are inhomogeneous inspace and time. Instead of a frequency being split into several easilyseen narrow frequencies, the original frequency simply becomes muchwider, encompassing most, if not all, of what would have been the splitfrequencies, (i.e., it is broadened). Solvents, support materials,poisons, promoters, etc., are composed of atoms and molecules andcomponents thereof. It is now understood that many of their effects arethe result of the intermolecular Stark effect.

The above examples demonstrate how an electric field splits, shifts, andbroadens spectral frequencies for matter. However, intensities of thelines can also be affected. Some of these variations in intensity areshown in FIGS. 59 a and 59 b. FIG. 59 a shows patterns of Starkcomponents for transitions in the rotation of an asymmetric top moleculefor the J=4→5 transition; whereas FIG. 59 b corresponds to J=4→4. Theintensity variations depend on rotational transitions, molecularstructure, etc., and the electric field strength.

An interesting Stark effect is shown in a structure such as a molecule,which has hyperfine (rotational) frequencies. The general rule for thecreation of hyperfine frequencies is that the hyperfine frequenciesresult from an interaction between electrons and the nucleus. Thisinteraction can be affected by an external electric field. If theapplied external electric field is weak, then the Stark energy is muchless than the energy of the hyperfine energy (i.e., rotational energy).The hyperfine lines are split into various new lines, and the separation(i.e., splitting) between the lines is very small (i.e., at radiofrequencies and extra low frequencies).

If the external electric field is very strong, then the Stark energy ismuch larger than the hyperfine energy, and the molecule is tossed,sometimes violently, back and forth by the electric field. In this case,the hyperfine structure is radically changed. It is almost as thoughthere no longer is any hyperfine structure. The Stark splitting issubstantially the same as that which would have been observed if therewere no hyperfine frequencies, and the hyperfine frequencies simply actas a small perturbation to the Stark splitting frequencies.

If the external electric field is intermediate in strength, then theStark and hyperfine energies are substantially equivalent. In this case,the calculations become very complex. Generally, the Stark splitting isclose to the same frequencies as the hyperfine splitting, but therelative intensities of the various components can vary rapidly withslight changes in the strength of the external electric field. Thus, atone electric field strength one splitting frequency may predominate,while at an electric field strength just 1% higher, a totally differentStark frequency could predominate in intensity.

All of the preceding discussion on the Stark effect has concentrated onthe effects due to a static electric field, such as one would find witha direct current. The Stark effects of a dynamic, or time-varyingelectric field produced by an alternating current, are quite interestingand can be quite different. Just which of those affects appear, dependson the frequency of the electric field (i.e., alternating current)compared to the frequency of the matter in question. If the electricfield is varying very slowly, such as with 60 Hz wall outletelectricity, then the normal or static type of electric field effectoccurs. As the electric field varies from zero to maximum fieldstrength, the matter frequencies vary from their unsplit frequencies totheir maximally split frequencies at the rate of the changing electricfield. Thus, the electric field frequency modulates the frequency of thesplitting phenomena.

However, as the electrical frequency increases, the first frequencymeasurement it will begin to overtake is the line width (see FIG. 16 fora diagram of line width). The line width of a curve is its' distanceacross, and the measurement is actually a very tiny heterodyne frequencymeasurement from one side of the curve to the other side. Line widthfrequencies are typically around 100 KHz at room temperature. Inpractical terms, line width represents a relaxation time for molecules,where the relaxation time is the time required for any transientphenomena to disappear. So, if the electrical frequency is significantlysmaller than the line width frequency, the molecule has plenty of timeto adjust to the slowly changing electric field, and the normal orstatic-type Stark effects occur.

If the electrical frequency is slightly less than the line widthfrequency, the molecule changes its' frequencies substantially in rhythmwith the frequency of the electric field (i.e., it entrains to thefrequency of the electric field). This is shown in FIG. 60 which showsthe Stark effect for OCS on the J=1→2 transition with applied electricfields at various frequencies. The letter “a” corresponds to the Starkeffect with a static DC electric field; “b” corresponds to a broadeningand blurring of the Stark frequencies with a 1 KHz electric field; and“c” corresponds to a normal Stark effect with an electric field of 1,200KHz. As the electric field frequency approaches the KHz line widthrange, the Stark curves vary their frequencies with the electric fieldfrequency and become broadened and somewhat blurred. When the electricfield frequency moves up and beyond the line width range to about 1,200KHz, the normal Stark type curves again become crisp anddistinguishable. In many respects, the molecule cannot keep up with therapid electrical field variation and simply averages the Stark effect.In all three cases, the cyclic splitting of the Stark frequencies ismodulated with the electrical field frequency, or its' first harmonic(i.e., 2× the electrical field frequency).

The next frequency measurement that an ever-increasing electricalfrequency will overtake in a molecule is the transitional frequencybetween two rotational levels (i.e., hyperfine frequencies). As theelectric field frequency approaches a transitional frequency between twolevels, the radiation of the transitional frequency in the molecule willinduce transitions back and forth between the levels. The moleculeoscillates back and forth between both levels, at the frequency of theelectric field. When the electric field and transition level frequenciesare substantially the same (i.e., in resonance), the molecule will beoscillating back and forth in both levels, and the spectral lines forboth levels will appear simultaneously and at approximately the sameintensity. Normally, only one frequency level is seen at a time, but aresonant electric field causes the molecule to be at both levels atessentially the same time, and so both transitional frequencies appearin its' spectrum.

Moreover, for sufficiently large electric fields (e.g., those used togenerate plasmas) additional transition level frequencies can occur atregular spacings substantially equal to the electric field frequency.Also, splitting of the transition level frequencies can occur, atfrequencies of the electric field frequency divided by odd numbers(e.g., electric field frequency “f_(E)” divided by 3, or 5, or 7, i.e.,f_(E)/3 or f_(E)/5, etc.).

All the varied effects of electric fields cause new frequencies, newsplitting frequencies and new energy level states.

Further, when the electric field frequency equals a transition levelfrequency of for instance, an atom or molecule, a second component withan opposite frequency charge and equal intensity can develop. This isnegative Stark effect, with the two components of equal and oppositefrequency charges destructively canceling each other. In spectralchemistry terms this amounts to a negative catalyst or poison in thecell reaction system, if the transition thus targeted was important tothe reaction pathway. Thus, electric fields cause the Stark effect,which is the splitting, shifting, broadening, or changing intensity andchanging transitional states of spectral frequencies for matter, (e.g.,atoms and molecules). As with many of the other mechanisms that havebeen discussed herein, changes in the spectral frequencies of cellreaction systems can affect the reaction rate and/or reaction pathway.For example, consider a cell reaction system like the following:

where A&B are reactants, C is a physical catalyst, I stands for theintermediates, and D&F are the products.

Assume arguendo that the reaction normally progresses at only a moderaterate, by virtue of the fact that the physical catalyst produces severalfrequencies that are merely close to harmonics of the intermediates.Further assume that when an electric field is added, the catalystfrequencies are shifted so that several of the catalyst frequencies arenow exact or substantially exact harmonics of the intermediates. Thiswill result in, for example, the reaction being catalyzed at a fasterrate. Thus, the Stark effect can be used to obtain a more efficientenergy transfer through the matching of frequencies (i.e., whenfrequencies match, energies transfer).

If a reaction normally progresses at only a moderate rate, many“solutions” have included subjecting the cell reaction system toextremely high pressures. The high pressures result in a broadening ofthe spectral patterns, which improves the transfer of energy through amatching of resonant frequencies. By understanding the underlyingcatalyst mechanisms of action, high-pressure systems could be replacedwith, for example, a simple electric field which produces broadening.Not only would this be less costly to an industrial manufacturer, itcould be much safer for manufacturing due to the removal of, forexample, high-pressure equipment.

Some reactants when mixed together do not react very quickly at all, butwhen an electric field is added they react rather rapidly. The prior artmay refer to such a reaction as being catalyzed by an electric field andthe equations would look like this:

where E is the electric field. In this case, rather than applying acatalyst “C” (as discussed previously) to obtain the products “D+F”, anelectric field “E” can be applied. In this instance, the electric fieldworks by changing the spectral frequencies (or spectral pattern) of oneor more components in the cell reaction system so that the frequenciescome into resonance, and the reaction can proceed along a desiredreaction pathway (i.e., when frequencies match, energy is transferred).Understood in this way, the electric field becomes just another tool tochange spectral frequencies of atoms and molecules, and thereby affectreaction rates in spectral chemistry.

Reaction pathways are also important. In the absence of an electricalfield, a reaction pathway will progress to one set of products:

However, if an electrical field is added, at some particular strength ofthe field, the spectral frequencies may change so much, that a differentintermediate is energized and the reaction proceeds down a differentreaction pathway:

This is similar to the concept discussed earlier herein, regarding theformation of different products depending on temperature. The changes intemperature caused changes in spectral frequencies, and hence differentreaction pathways were favored at different temperatures. Likewise,electric fields cause changes in spectral frequencies, and hencedifferent reactions pathways are favored by different electric fields.By tailoring an electric field to a particular cell reaction system, onecan control not only the rate of the reaction but also the reactionproducts produced.

The ability to tailor reactions, with or without a physical catalyst, byvarying the strength of an electric field should be useful in manymanufacturing situations. For example, it might be more cost effectiveto build only one physical set-up for a cell reaction system and to useone or more electric fields to change the reaction dynamics andproducts, depending on which product is desired. This would save theexpense of having a separate physical set-up for production of eachgroup of products.

Besides varying the strength of an electric field, the frequency of anelectric field can also be varied. Assuming that a reaction will proceedat a much faster rate if a particular strength static electric field(i.e., direct current) is added as in the following:

But further assume, that because of reactor design and location, it ismuch easier to deliver a time-varying electric field with alternatingcurrent. A very low frequency field, such as with a 60 Hz wall outlet,can produce the normal or static-type Stark effect. Thus, the reactorcould be adapted to the 60 Hz electric field and enjoy the same increasein reaction rate that would occur with the static electric field.

If a certain physical catalyst produces spectral frequencies that areclose to intermediate frequencies, but are not exact, it is possiblethat the activity of the physical catalyst in the past may have beenimproved by using higher temperatures. As disclosed earlier herein, thehigher temperatures actually broadened the physical catalyst's spectralpattern to cause the frequency of the physical catalyst to be at least apartial match for at least one of the intermediates. What is significanthere is that high temperature boilers can be minimized, or eliminatedaltogether, and in their stead a moderate frequency electric fieldwhich, for example, broadened the spectral frequencies, could be used.For example, a frequency of around 100 Khz, equivalent to the typicalline width frequencies at room temperature, could broaden substantiallyall of the spectral curves and cause the physical catalyst's spectralcurves to match those of, for example, required intermediates. Thus, theelectric field could cause the matter to behave as though thetemperature had been raised, even though it had not been. (Similarly,any spectral manipulation, (e.g., electric fields acoustics,heterodynes, etc., that cause changes in the spectral line width, maycause a material to behave as though its temperature had been changed).

The cyclic splitting of the Stark frequencies can be modulated with theelectrical field frequency or its' first harmonic (i.e., first-orderStark effects are modulated with the electrical field frequency, whilesecond-order Stark effects are modulated by two times the electricalfield, frequency). Assume that a metallic platinum catalyst is used in ahydrogen reaction and it is desired to stimulate the 2.7 MHz hyperfinefrequency of the hydrogen atoms. Earlier herein it was disclosed thatelectromagnetic radiation could be used to deliver the 2.7 MHzfrequency. However, use of an alternating electric field at 2.7 MHzcould be used instead. Since platinum is a metal and conductselectricity well, the platinum can be considered to be a part of thealternating current circuit. The platinum will exhibit a Stark effect,with all the frequencies splitting at a rate of 2.7 MHz. At sufficientlystrong electric fields, additional transition frequencies or “sidebands”will occur at regular spacings equal to the electric field frequency.There will be dozens of split frequencies in the platinum atoms that areheterodynes of 2.7 MHz. This massive heterodyned output may stimulatethe hydrogen hyperfine frequency of 2.7 MHz and direct the reaction.

Another way to achieve this reaction, of course, would be to leave theplatinum out of the reaction altogether. The 2.7 MHz field will have aresonant Stark effect on the hydrogen, separate and independent of theplatinum catalyst. Copper is not normally catalytic for hydrogen, butcopper could be used to construct a reaction vessel like a Starkwaveguide to energize the hydrogen. A Stark waveguide is used to performStark spectroscopy. It is shown as FIGS. 61 a and 61 b. Specifically,FIG. 61 a shows the construction of the Stark waveguide, whereas FIG. 61b shows the distribution of fields in the Stark waveguide. Theelectrical field is delivered through the conducting plate. A reactionvessel could be made for the flow-through of gases and use an economicalmetal such as copper for the conducting plate. When the 2.7 MHzalternating current is delivered through the electrical connection tothe copper conductor plate, the copper spectral frequencies, none ofwhich are particularly resonant with hydrogen, will exhibit a Starkeffect with normal-type splitting. The Stark frequencies will be splitat a rate of 2.7 MHz. At a sufficiently strong electric field strength,additional sidebands will appear in the copper, with regular spacings(i.e., heterodynes) of 2.7 MHz even though none of the actual copperfrequencies matches the hydrogen frequencies, the Stark splitting orheterodynes will match the hydrogen frequency. Dozens of the coppersplit frequencies may resonate indirectly with the hydrogen hyperfinefrequency and direct the reaction (i.e., when frequencies match,energies transfer).

With sophisticated equipment and a good understanding of a particularsystem, Stark resonance can be used with a transition level frequency.For example, assume that to achieve a particular reaction pathway, amolecule needs to be stimulated with a transition level frequency of 500MHz. By delivering the 500 MHz electrical field to the molecule, thisresonant electrical field may cause the molecule to oscillate back andforth between the two levels at the rate of 500 MHz. This electricallycreates the conditions for light amplification (i.e., laser viastimulation of multiple upper energy levels) and any addedelectromagnetic radiation at this frequency will be amplified by themolecule. In this manner, an electrical field may substitute for thelaser effects of physical catalysts.

In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanisms ofchemical reactions, electric fields can be used as yet another tool tocatalyze and modify those chemical reactions and/or reaction pathways bymodifying the spectral characteristics, for example, at least oneparticipant and/or one or more components in the cell reaction system.Thus, another tool for mimicking catalyst mechanisms of reactions can beutilized.

Magnetic Fields

In spectral terms, magnetic fields behave similar to electric fields intheir effect. Specifically, the spectral frequency lines, for instanceof atoms and molecules, can be split and shifted by a magnetic field. Inthis case, the external magnetic field from outside the atom ormolecule, interacts with the electric and magnetic fields already insidethe atom or molecule.

This action of an external magnetic field on spectral lines is calledthe “Zeeman Effect”, in honor of its' discoverer, Dutch physicist PieterZeeman. In 1896, Zeeman discovered that the yellow flame spectroscopy“D” lines of sodium were broadened when the flame was held betweenstrong magnetic poles. It was later discovered that the apparentbroadening of the sodium spectral lines was actually due to theirsplitting and shifting. Zeeman's original observation has evolved into aseparate branch of spectroscopy, relating to the study of atoms andmolecules by measuring the changes in their spectral lines caused by amagnetic field. This in turn has evolved into the nuclear magneticresonance spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging used in medicine,as well as the laser magnetic resonance and electron spin resonancespectroscopy used in physics and chemistry.

The Zeeman effect for the famous “D” lines of sodium is shown in FIGS.62 a and 62 b. FIG. 62 a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium “D” lines;whereas FIG. 62 b shows the energy level diagram for the transitions inthe Zeeman effect for the sodium “D” lines. The “D” lines aretraditionally said to result from transition between the 3p²P and 3_(s)²S electron orbitals. As is shown, each of the single spectralfrequencies is split into two or more slightly different frequencies,which center around the original unsplit frequency.

In the Zeeman effect, the amount that the spectral frequencies are splitapart depends on the strength of the applied magnetic field. FIG. 63shows Zeeman splitting effects for the oxygen atom as a function ofmagnetic field. When there is no magnetic field, there are two singlefrequencies at zero and 4.8. When the magnetic field is at low strength(e.g., 0.2 Tesla) there is just slight splitting and shifting of theoriginal two frequencies. However, as the magnetic field is increased,the frequencies are split and shifted farther and farther apart.

The degree of splitting and shifting in the Zeeman effect, depending onmagnetic field strength, is shown in FIG. 64 for the ³P state ofsilicon.

As with the Stark effect generated from an external electric field, theZeeman effect, generated from an external magnetic field, is slightlydifferent depending on whether an atom or molecule is subjected to themagnetic field. The Zeeman effect on atoms can be divided into threedifferent magnetic field strengths: weak; moderate; and strong. If themagnetic field strength is weak, the amount that the spectralfrequencies will be shifted and split apart will be very small. Theshifting away from the original spectral frequency will still stimulatethe shifted frequencies. This is because they will be so close to theoriginal spectral frequency that they will still be well within itsresonance curve. As for the splitting, it is so small, that it is evenless than the hyperfine splitting that normally occurs. This means thatin a weak magnetic field, there will be only very slight splitting ofspectral frequencies, translating into very low splitting frequencies inthe lower regions of the radio spectrum and down into the very lowfrequency region. For example, the Zeeman splitting frequency for thehydrogen atom, which is caused by the earth's magnetic field, is around30 KHz. Larger atoms have even lower frequencies in the lower kilohertzand even hertz regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Without a magnetic field, an atom can be stimulated by using directresonance with a spectral frequency or by using its fine or hyperfinesplitting frequencies in the infrared through microwave, or microwavethrough radio regions, respectively. By merely adding a very weakmagnetic field, the atom can be stimulated with an even lower radio orvery low frequency matching the Zeeman splitting frequency. Thus, bysimply using a weak magnetic field, a spectral catalyst range can beextended even lower into the radio frequency range. The weak magneticfield from the Earth causes Zeeman splitting in atoms in the hertz andkilohertz ranges. This means that all atoms, including those inbiological organisms, are sensitive to hertz and kilohertz EMfrequencies, by virtue of being subjected to the Earth's magnetic field.

At the other end of magnetic field strength, is the very strong magneticfield. In this case, the splitting apart and shifting of the spectralfrequencies will be very wide. With this wide shifting of frequencies,the difference between the split frequencies will be much larger thanthe difference between the hyperfine splitting frequencies. Thistranslates to Zeeman effect splitting frequencies at higher frequenciesthan the hyperfine splitting frequencies. This splitting occurssomewhere around the microwave region. Although the addition of a strongmagnetic field does not extend the reach in the electromagnetic spectrumat one extreme or the other, as a weak magnetic field does, it stilldoes provide an option of several more potential spectral catalystfrequencies that can be used in the microwave region.

The moderate magnetic field strength case is more complicated. Theshifting and splitting caused by the Zeeman effect from a moderatemagnetic field will be approximately equal to the hyperfine splitting.Although not widely discussed in the prior art, it is possible to applya moderate magnetic field to an atom, to produce Zeeman splitting whichis substantially equivalent to its' hyperfine splitting. This presentsinteresting possibilities. Methods for guiding atoms in chemicalreactions were disclosed earlier herein by stimulating atoms withhyperfine splitting frequencies. The Zeeman effect provides a way toachieve similar effects without introducing any spectral frequencies atall. For example, by introducing a moderate magnetic field, resonancemay be set-up within the atom itself, that stimulates and/or energizesand/or stabilizes the atom.

The moderate magnetic field causes low frequency Zeeman splitting thatmatches and hence energizes the low frequency hyperfine splittingfrequency in the atom. However, the low hyperfine splitting frequenciesactually correspond to the heterodyned difference between twovibrational or fine structure frequencies. When the hyperfine splittingfrequency is stimulated, the two electronic frequencies will eventuallybe stimulated. This in turn causes the atom to be, for example,stimulated. Thus, the Zeeman effect permits a spectral energy catalyststimulation of an atom by exposing that atom to a precise strength of amagnetic field, and the use of spectral EM frequencies is not required(i.e., so long as frequencies match, energies will transfer). Thepossibilities are quite interesting because an inert cell reactionsystem may suddenly spring to life upon the application of the propermoderate strength magnetic field.

There is also a difference between the “normal” Zeeman effect and the“anomalous” Zeeman effect. With the “normal” Zeeman effect, a spectralfrequency is split by a magnetic field into three frequencies, withexpected even spacing between them (see FIG. 65 a which shows the“normal” Zeeman effects and FIG. 65 b which shows the “anomalous” Zeemaneffects). One of the new split frequencies is above the originalfrequency, and the other new split frequency is below the originalfrequency. Both new frequencies are split the same distance away fromthe original frequency. Thus, the difference between the upper andoriginal and the lower and original frequencies is about the same. Thismeans that in terms of heterodyne differences, there are at most, twonew heterodyned differences with the normal Zeeman effect. The firstheterodyne or splitting difference is the difference between one of thenew split frequencies and the original frequency. The other splittingdifference is between the upper and lower new split frequencies. It is,of course, twice the frequency difference between either of the upper orlower frequencies and the original frequency.

In many instances the Zeeman splitting produced by a magnetic fieldresults in more than three frequencies, or in splitting that is spaceddifferently than expected. This is called the “anomalous” Zeeman effect(see FIGS. 65 and 66; wherein FIG. 66 shows an anomalous Zeeman effectfor zinc 3p→3s.

If there are still just three frequencies, and the Zeeman effect isanomalous because the spacing is different than expected, the situationis similar to the normal effect. However, there are at most, two newsplitting frequencies that can be used. If, however, the effect isanomalous because more than three frequencies are produced, then therewill be a much more richly varied situation. Assume an easy case wherethere are four Zeeman splitting frequencies (see FIGS. 67 a and FIG. 67b). FIG. 67 a shows four Zeeman splitting frequencies and FIG. 67 bshows four new heterodyned differences.

In this example of anomalous Zeeman splitting, there are a total of fourfrequencies, where once existed only one frequency. For simplicity'ssake, the new Zeeman frequencies will be labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4.Frequencies 3 and 4 are also split apart by the same difference “w”.Thus, “w” is a heterodyned splitting frequency. Frequencies 2 and 3 arealso split apart by a different amount “x”. So far there are twoheterodyned splitting frequencies, as in the normal Zeeman effect.

However, frequencies 1 and 3 are split apart by a third amount “y”,where “y” is the sum of “w” and “x”. And, frequencies 2 and 4 are alsosplit apart by the same third amount “y”. Finally, frequencies 1 and 4are split even farther apart by an amount “z”. Once again, “z” is asummation amount from adding “w+x+w”. Thus, the result is fourheterodyned frequencies: w, x, y, and z in the anomalous Zeeman effect.

If there were six frequencies present from the anomalous Zeeman effect,there would be even more heterodyned differences. Thus, the anomalousZeeman effect results in far greater flexibility in the choice offrequencies when compared to the normal Zeeman effect. In the normalZeeman effect the original frequency is split into three evenly spacedfrequencies, with a total of just two heterodyned frequencies. In theanomalous Zeeman effect the original frequency is split into four ormore unevenly spaced frequencies, with at least four or more heterodynedfrequencies.

Similar Zeeman effects can occur in molecules. Molecules come in threebasic varieties: ferromagnetic; paramagnetic; and diamagnetic.Ferromagnetic molecules are typical magnets. The materials typicallyhold a strong magnetic field and are composed of magnetic elements suchas iron, cobalt, and nickel.

Paramagnetic molecules hold only a weak magnetic field. If aparamagnetic material is put into an external magnetic field, themagnetic moment of the molecules of the material are lined up in thesame direction as the external magnetic field. Now, the magnetic momentof the molecules is the direction in which the molecules own magneticfield is weighted. Specifically, the magnetic moment of a molecule willtip to whichever side of the molecule is more heavily weighted in termsof its own magnetic field. Thus, paramagnetic molecules will typicallytip in the same direction as an externally applied magnetic field.Because paramagnetic materials line up with an external magnetic field,they are also weakly attracted to sources of magnetic fields.

Common paramagnetic elements include oxygen, aluminum, sodium,magnesium, calcium and potassium. Stable molecules such as oxygen (O₂)and nitric oxide (NO) are also paramagnetic. Molecular oxygen makes upapproximately 20% of our planet's atmosphere. Both molecules playimportant roles in biologic organisms. In addition, unstable molecules,more commonly known as free radicals, chemical reaction intermediates orplasmas, are also paramagnetic. Paramagnetic ions include hydrogen,manganese, chromium, iron, cobalt, and nickel. Many paramagneticsubstances occur in biological organisms. For instance the blood flowingin our veins is an ionic solution containing red blood cells. The redblood cells contain hemoglobin, which in turn contains ionized iron. Thehemoglobin, and hence the red blood cells, are paramagnetic. Inaddition, hydrogen ions can be found in a multitude of organic compoundsand reactions. For instance, the hydrochloric acid in a stomach containshydrogen ions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy system of nearlyall biological organisms, requires hydrogen and manganese ions tofunction properly. Thus, the very existence of life itself depends onparamagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic molecules, on the other hand, are repelled by a magneticfield, and line up what little magnetic moments they have away from thedirection of an external magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances do nottypically hold a magnetic field. Examples of diamagnetic elementsinclude hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,chlorine, copper, zinc, silver, gold, lead, and mercury. Diamagneticmolecules include water, most gases, organic compounds, and salts suchas sodium chloride. Salts are really just crystals of diamagnetic ions.Diamagnetic ions include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium,fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, ammonium, and sulphate. Ioniccrystals usually dissolve easily in water, and as such the ionic watersolution is also diamagnetic. Biologic organisms are filled withdiamagnetic materials, because they are carbon-based life forms. Inaddition, the blood flowing in our veins is an ionic solution containingblood cells. The ionic solution (i.e., blood plasma) is made of watermolecules, sodium ions, potassium ions, chlorine ions, and organicprotein compounds. Hence, our blood is a diamagnetic solution carryingparamagnetic blood cells.

With regard to the Zeeman effect, first consider the case ofparamagnetic molecules. As with atoms, the effects can be categorized onthe basis of magnetic field strength. If the external magnetic fieldapplied to a paramagnetic molecule is weak, the Zeeman effect willproduce splitting into equally spaced levels. In most cases, the amountof splitting will be directly proportional to the strength of themagnetic field, a “first-order” effect. A general rule of thumb is thata field of one (1) oersted (i.e., slightly larger than the earth'smagnetic field) will produce Zeeman splittings of approximately 1.4 MHzin paramagnetic molecules. Weaker magnetic fields will produce narrowersplittings, at lower frequencies. Stronger magnetic fields will producewider splittings, at higher frequencies. In these first order Zeemaneffects, there is usually only splitting, with no shifting of theoriginal or center frequency, as was present with Zeeman effects onatoms.

In many paramagnetic molecules there are also second-order effects wherethe Zeeman splitting is proportional to the square of the magnetic fieldstrength. In these cases, the splitting is much smaller and of muchlower frequencies. In addition to splitting, the original or centerfrequencies shift as they do in atoms, proportional to the magneticfield strength.

Sometimes the direction of the magnetic field in relation to theorientation of the molecule makes a difference. For instance, πfrequencies are associated with a magnetic field parallel to an excitingelectromagnetic field, while σ frequencies are found when it isperpendicular. Both π and σ frequencies are present with a circularlypolarized electromagnetic field. Typical Zeeman splitting patterns for aparamagnetic molecule in two different transitions are shown in FIGS. 68a and 68 b. The π frequencies are seen when ΔM=0, and are above the longhorizontal line. The σ frequencies are seen when ΔM=+/−1, and are belowthe long horizontal line. If a paramagnetic molecule was placed in aweak magnetic field, circularly polarized light would excite both setsof frequencies in the molecule. Thus, it is possible to control whichset of frequencies are excited in a molecule by controlling itsorientation with respect to the magnetic field.

When the magnetic field strength is intermediate, the interactionbetween the paramagnetic molecule's magnetic moments and the externallyapplied magnetic field produces Zeeman effects equivalent to otherfrequencies and energies in the molecule. For instance, the Zeemanspitting may be near a rotational frequency and disturb the end-over-endrotational motion of the molecule. The Zeeman splitting and energy maybe particular or large enough to uncouple the molecule's spin from itsmolecular axis.

If the magnetic field is very strong, the nuclear magnetic moment spinwill uncouple from the molecular angular momentum. In this case, theZeeman effects overwhelm the hyperfine structure, and are of much higherenergies at much higher frequencies. In spectra of molecules exposed tostrong magnetic fields, hyperfine splitting appears as a smallperturbation of the Zeeman splitting.

Next, consider Zeeman effects in so called “ordinary molecules” ordiamagnetic molecules. Most molecules are of the diamagnetic variety,hence the designation “ordinary”. This includes, of course, most organicmolecules found in biologic organisms. Diamagnetic molecules haverotational magnetic moments from rotation of the positively chargednucleus, and this magnetic moment of the nucleus is only about 1/1000 ofthat from the paramagnetic molecules. This means that the energy fromZeeman splitting in diamagnetic molecules is much smaller than theenergy from Zeeman splitting in paramagnetic molecules. The equation forthe Zeeman energy in diamagnetic molecules is:Hz=−(g _(j) J=g ₁ I).βH _(o)where J is the molecular rotational angular momentum, I is thenuclear-spin angular momentum, g_(j) is the rotational g factor, and g₁is the nuclear-spin g factor. This Zeeman energy is much less, and ofmuch lower frequency, than the paramagnetic Zeeman energy. In terms offrequency, it falls in the hertz and kilohertz regions of theelectromagnetic spectrum.

Finally, consider the implications of Zeeman splitting for catalyst andchemical reactions and for spectral chemistry. A weak magnetic fieldwill produce hertz and kilohertz Zeeman splitting in atoms and secondorder effects in paramagnetic molecules. Virtually any kind of magneticfield will produce hertz and kilohertz Zeeman splitting in diamagneticmolecules. All these atoms and molecules will then become sensitive toradio and very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic waves. The atoms andmolecules will absorb the radio or VLF energy and become stimulated to agreater or lesser degree. This could be used to add spectral energy to,for instance, a particular molecule or intermediate in a chemical cellreaction system. For instance, for hydrogen and oxygen gases turninginto water over a platinum catalyst, the hydrogen atom radical isimportant for maintaining the reaction. In the earth's weak magneticfield, Zeeman splitting for hydrogen is around 30 KHz. Thus, thehydrogen atoms in the cell reaction system, could be energized byapplying to them a Zeeman splitting frequency for hydrogen (e.g., 30KHz). Energizing the hydrogen atoms in the cell reaction system willduplicate the mechanisms of action of platinum, and catalyze thereaction. If the reaction was moved into outer space, away from theearth's weak magnetic field, hydrogen would no longer have a 30 KHzZeeman splitting frequency, and the 30 KHz would no longer aseffectively catalyze the reaction.

The vast majority of materials on this planet, by virtue of existingwithin the earth's weak magnetic field, will exhibit Zeeman splitting inthe hertz and kilohertz regions. This applies to biologics and organicsas well as inorganic or inanimate materials. Humans are composed of awide variety of atoms, diamagnetic molecules, and second order effectparamagnetic molecules. These atoms and molecules all exist in theearth's weak magnetic field. These atoms and molecules in humans allhave Zeeman splitting in the hertz and kilohertz regions, because theyare in the earth's magnetic field. Biochemical and biocatalyticprocesses in humans are thus sensitive to hertz and kilohertzelectromagnetic radiation, by virtue of the fact that they are in theearth's weak magnetic field. As long as humans continue to exist on thisplanet, they will be subject to spectral energy catalyst effects fromhertz and kilohertz EM waves because of the Zeeman effect from theplanet's magnetic field. This has significant implications for lowfrequency communications, as well as chemical and biochemical reactions,diagnostics, and treatment of diseases.

A strong magnetic field will produce splitting greater than thehyperfine frequencies, in the microwave and infrared regions of the EMspectrum in atoms and paramagnetic molecules. In the hydrogen/oxygenreaction, a strong field could be added to the cell reaction system andtransmit MHz and/or GHz frequencies into the reaction to energize thehydroxy radical and hydrogen reaction intermediates. If physicalplatinum was used to catalyze the reaction, the application of aparticular magnetic field strength could result in both the platinum andthe reaction intermediate spectra having frequencies that were split andshifted in such a way that even more frequencies matched than withoutthe magnetic field. In this way, Zeeman splitting can be used to improvethe effectiveness of a physical catalyst, by copying its mechanism ofaction (i.e., more frequencies could be caused to match and thus moreenergy could transfer).

A moderate magnetic field will produce Zeeman splitting in atoms andparamagnetic molecules at frequencies on par with the hyperfine androtational splitting frequencies. This means that a cell reaction systemcan be energized without even adding electromagnetic energy. Similarly,by placing the cell reaction system in a moderate magnetic field thatproduces Zeeman splitting equal to the hyperfine or rotationalsplitting, increased reaction would occur. For instance, by using amagnetic field that causes hyperfine or rotational splitting in hydrogenand oxygen gas, that matches the Zeeman splitting in hydrogen atom orhydroxy radicals, the hydrogen or hydroxy intermediate would beenergized and would proceed through the reaction cascade to producewater. By using the appropriately tuned moderate magnetic field, themagnetic field could be used to turn the reactants into catalysts fortheir own reaction, without the addition of physical catalyst platinumor the spectral catalyst of platinum. Although the magnetic field wouldsimply be copying the mechanism of action of platinum, the reactionwould have the appearance of being catalyzed solely by an appliedmagnetic field.

Finally, consider the direction of the magnetic field in relation to theorientation of the molecule. When the magnetic field is parallel to anexciting electromagnetic field, π frequencies are produced. When themagnetic field is perpendicular to an exciting electromagnetic field, σfrequencies are found. Assume that there is an industrial chemical cellreaction system that uses the same (or similar) starting reactants, butthe goal is to be able to produce different products at will. By usingmagnetic fields combined with spectral energy or physical catalysts, thereaction can be guided to one set of products or another. For the firstset of products, the electromagnetic excitation is oriented parallel tothe magnetic field, producing one set of π frequencies, which leads to afirst set of products. To achieve a different product, the direction ofthe magnetic field is changed so that it is perpendicular to theexciting electromagnetic field. This produces a different set of σfrequencies, and a different reaction pathway is energized, thusproducing a different set of products. Thus, according to the presentinvention, magnetic field effects, Zeeman splitting, splitting andspectral energy catalysts can be used to fine-tune the specificity ofmany cell reaction systems.

In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanism tochemical reactions, magnetic fields can be used as yet another tool tocatalyze and modify those chemical reactions by modifying the spectralcharacteristics of at least one participant and/or at least onecomponent in the cell reaction system.

Reaction Vessel and Conditioning Reaction Vessel Size, Shape andComposition

An important consideration in the use of spectral chemistry is thereaction vessel size, shape and composition. The reaction vessel sizeand shape can affect the vessel's NOF to various wave energies (e.g.,EM, acoustic, electrical current, etc). This in turn may affect cellreaction system dynamics. For instance, a particularly small bench-topreaction vessel may have an EM NOF of 1,420 MHz related to a 25 cmdimension. When a reaction with an atomic hydrogen intermediate isperformed in the small bench-top reaction the reaction proceeds quickly,due in part to the fact that the reactor vessel and the hydrogenhyperfine splitting frequencies match (1,420 MHz). This allows thereaction vessel and hydrogen intermediates to resonate, thustransferring energy to the intermediate and promoting the reactionpathway.

When the reaction is scaled up for large industrial production, thereaction would occur in a much larger reaction vessel with an EM NOF of,for example, 100 MHz. Because the reaction vessel is no longerresonating with the hydrogen intermediate, the reaction proceeds at aslower rate. This deficiency in the larger reaction vessel can becompensated for, by, for example, supplementing the reaction with 1,420MHz radiation, thereby restoring the faster reaction rate.

Likewise, reaction vessel (or conditioning reaction vessel) compositionmay play a similar role in cell reaction system dynamics. For example, astainless steel bench-top reaction vessel may produce vibrationalfrequencies which resonate with vibrational frequencies of a reactant,thus, for example, promoting disassociation of a reactant into reactiveintermediates. When the reaction is scaled up for industrial production,it may be placed into, for example, a ceramic-lined metal reactorvessel. The new reaction vessel typically will not produce the reactantvibrational frequency, and the reaction will proceed at a slower rate.Once again, this deficiency in the new reaction vessel, caused by itsdifferent composition, can be compensated for either by returning thereaction to a stainless steel vessel, or by supplementing, for example,the vibrational frequency of the reactant into the ceramic-lined vessel;and/or conditioning the reaction vessel with a suitable conditioningenergy prior to some or all of the other components of the reactionsystem being introduced into the reaction vessel.

It should now be understood that all the aspects of spectral chemistrypreviously discussed (resonance, targeting, poisons, promoters,supporters, electric and magnetic-fields both endogenous and exogenousto cell reaction system components, etc.) apply to the reaction vessel(or conditioning reaction vessel), as well as to, for example, anyparticipant (or conditionable participant) placed inside it. Thereaction vessel (or conditioning reaction vessel) may be comprised ofmatter (e.g., stainless steel, plastic, glass, and/or ceramic, etc.) orit may be comprised of a field or energy (e.g., magnetic bottle, lighttrapping, etc.) A reaction vessel (or conditioning reactor vessel), bypossessing inherent properties such as frequencies, waves, and/orfields, may interact with other components in the cell reaction systemand/or at least one participant. Likewise, holding vessels, conduits,etc., some of which may interact with the reaction system, but in whichthe reaction does not actually take place, may interact with one or morecomponents in the cell reaction system and may potentially affect them,either positively or negatively. Accordingly, when reference is made tothe reaction vessel, it should be understood that all portionsassociated therewith may also be involved in desirable reactions.

EXAMPLES

The invention will be more clearly perceived and better understood fromthe following specific examples.

Example 1 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst in aGas Phase Reaction 2H₂+0₂>>>>Platinum Catalyst>>>>2H₂O

Water can be produced by the method of exposing H₂ and O₂ to a physicalplatinum (Pt) catalyst but there is always the possibility of producinga potentially dangerous explosive risk. This experiment replaced thephysical platinum catalyst with a spectral catalyst comprising thespectral pattern of the physical platinum catalyst, which resonates withand transfers energy to the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates.

To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form waterutilizing a spectral catalyst, electrolysis of water was performed toprovide stoichiometric amounts of oxygen and hydrogen starting gases. Atriple neck flask was fitted with two (2) rubber stoppers on the outsidenecks, each fitted with platinum electrodes encased in glass for a four(4) inch length. The flask was filled with distilled water and a pinchof salt so that only the glass-encased portion of the electrode wasexposed to air, and the unencased portion of the electrode wascompletely under water. The central neck was connected via a rubberstopper to vacuum tubing, which led to a Drierite column to remove anywater from the produced gases.

After vacuum removal of all gases in the system (to about 700 mm Hg),electrolysis was conducted using a 12 V power source attached to the twoelectrodes. Electrolysis was commenced with the subsequent production ofhydrogen and oxygen gases in stoichiometric amounts. The gases passedthrough the Drierite column, through vacuum tubing connected to positiveand negative pressure gauges and into a sealed 1,000 ml, round quartzflask. A strip of filter paper, which contained dried cobalt, had beenplaced in the bottom of the sealed flask. Initially the cobalt paper wasblue, indicating the absence of water in the flask. A similar cobalttest strip exposed to the ambient air was also blue.

The traditional physical platinum catalyst was replaced by spectralcatalyst platinum electronic frequencies (with their attendant fine andhyperfine frequencies) from a Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode PlatinumLamp which was positioned approximately one inch (about 2 cm) from theflask. This allowed the oxygen and hydrogen gases in the round quartzflask to be irradiated with emissions from the spectral catalyst. ACathodeon Hollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Pt lampat 80% maximum current (12 mAmps). The reaction flask was cooled usingdry ice in a Styrofoam container positioned directly beneath the roundquartz flask, offsetting any effects of heat from the Pt lamp. The Ptlamp was turned on and within two days of irradiation, a noticeable pinkcolor was evident on the cobalt paper strip indicating the presence ofwater in the round quartz flask. The cobalt test strip exposed toambient air in the lab remained blue. Over the next four to five days,the pink colored area on the cobalt strip became brighter and larger.Upon discontinuation of the Pt emission, H₂O diffused out of the cobaltstrip and was taken up by the Drierite column. Over the next four tofive days, the pink coloration of the cobalt strip in the quartz flaskfaded. The cobalt strip exposed to the ambient air remained blue.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to affect chemicalreactions in a gas phase.

Example 2 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Special Catalyst in aLiquid Phase Reaction H₂O₂>>>>Platinum Catalyst>>>>H₂0+O₂

The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is an extremely slow reaction inthe absence of catalysts. Accordingly, an experiment was performed whichshowed that the physical catalyst, finely divided platinum, could bereplaced with the spectral catalyst having the spectral pattern ofplatinum. Hydrogen peroxide, 3%, filled two (2) nippled quartz tubes.(the nippled quartz tubes consisted of a lower portion about 17 mminternal diameter and about 150 mm in length, narrowing over about a 10mm length to an upper capillary portion being about 2.0 mm internaldiameter and about 140 mm in length and were made from PhotoVac Laserquartz tubing). Both quartz tubes were inverted in 50 ml beakerreservoirs filled with (3%) hydrogen peroxide to about 40 ml and wereshielded from incident light (cardboard cylinders covered with aluminumfoil). One of the light shielded tubes was used as a control. The othershielded tube was exposed to a Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode Lamp forplatinum (Pt) using a Cathodeon Hollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610, at 80%maximum current (12 mA). The experiment was performed several times withan exposure time ranging from about 24 to about 96 hours. The shieldedtubes were monitored for increases in temperature (there was none) toassure that any reaction was not due to thermal effects. In a typicalexperiment the nippled tubes were prepared with hydrogen peroxide (3%)as described above herein. Both tubes were shielded from light, and thePt tube was exposed to platinum spectral emissions, as described above,for about 24 hours. Gas production in the control tube A measured aboutfour (4) mm in length in the capillary (i.e., about 12.5 mm³), while gasin the Pt (tube B) measured about 50 mm (i.e., about 157 mm³). Theplatinum spectral catalyst thus increased the reaction rate about 12.5times.

The tubes were then switched and tube A was exposed to the platinumspectral catalyst, for about 24 hours, while tube B served as thecontrol. Gas production in the control (tube B) measured about 2 mm inlength in the capillary (i.e., about 6 mm³) while gas in the Pt tube(tube A) measured about 36 mm (i.e., about 113 mm³), yielding about a 19fold difference in reaction rate.

As a negative control, to confirm that any lamp would not cause the sameresult, the experiment was repeated with a sodium lamp at 6 mA (80% ofthe maximum current). Na in a traditional reaction would be a reactantwith water releasing hydrogen gas, not a catalyst of hydrogen peroxidebreakdown. The control tube measured gas to be about 4 mm in length(i.e., about 12 mm³) in the capillary portion, while the Na tube gasmeasured to be about 1 mm in length (i.e., about 3 mm³). This indicatedthat while spectral emissions can substitute for catalysts, they cannotyet substitute for reactants. Also, it indicated that the simple effectof using a hollow cathode tube emitting heat and energy into thehydrogen peroxide was not the cause of the gas bubble formation, butinstead, the spectral pattern of Pt replacing the physical catalystcaused the reaction.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to affect achemical reaction in a liquid phase and subsequent transformation to agas phase.

Example 3 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst in aSolid Phase Reaction

It is well known that certain microorganisms have a toxic reaction tosilver (Ag). The silver electronic spectrum consists of essentially twoultraviolet frequencies that fall between UV-A and UV-B. It is nowunderstood through this invention, that the high intensity spectralfrequencies produced in the silver electronic spectrum are ultravioletfrequencies that inhibit bacterial growth (by creation of free radicalsand by causing bacterial DNA damage). These UV frequencies areessentially harmless to mammalian cells. Thus, it was theorized that theknown medicinal and anti-microbial uses of silver are due to a spectralcatalyst effect. In this regard, an experiment was conducted whichshowed that the spectral catalyst emitting the spectrum of silverdemonstrated a toxic or inhibitory effect on microorganisms.

Bacterial cultures were placed onto standard growth medium in two petridishes (one control and one Ag) using standard plating techniquescovering the entire dish. Each dish was placed at the bottom of a lightshielding cylindrical chamber. A light shielding foil-covered, cardboarddisc with a patterned slit was placed over each culture plate. A FisherScientific Hollow Cathode Lamp for Silver (Ag) was inserted through thetop of the Ag exposure chamber so that only the spectral emissionpattern from the silver lamp was irradiating the bacteria on the Agculture plate (i.e., through the patterned slit). A Cathodeon HollowCathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Ag lamp at about 80%maximum current (3.6 mA). The control plate was not exposed to emissionsof an Ag lamp, and ambient light was blocked. Both control and Ag plateswere maintained at room temperature (e.g., about 70-74° F.) during thesilver spectral emission exposure time, which ranged from about 12-24hours in the various experiments. Afterwards, both plates were incubatedusing standard techniques (37° C., aerobic Forma Scientific Model 3157,Water-Jacketed Incubator) for about 24 hours.

The following bacteria (obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory atPeople's Hospital in Mansfield, Ohio, US), were studied for effects ofthe Ag lamp spectral emissions:

1. E. coli;

2. Strep. pneumoniae;

3. Staph. aureus; and

4. Salmonella typhi.

This group included both Gram⁺ and Gram⁻ species, as well as cocci androds.

Results were as follows:

1. Controls—all controls showed full growth covering the culture plates;

2. The Ag plates

-   -   areas unexposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed full        growth.    -   areas exposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed:        -   a. E. coli—no growth;        -   b. Strep. pneumoniae—no growth;        -   c. Staph. aureus—no growth; and        -   d. Salmonella tyhli—inhibited growth.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to catalyzechemical reactions in biological organisms. These reactions inhibitedgrowth of the biological organisms.

Example 4 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst, andComparing Results to Physical Catalyst Results in a Biologic Preparation

To further demonstrate that certain susceptible organisms which have atoxic reaction to silver would have a similar reaction to the spectralcatalyst emitting the spectrum of silver, cultures were obtained fromthe American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) which included Escherichiacoli #25922, and Klebsiella pneumonia, subsp Pneumoniae, #13883. Controland Ag plate cultures were performed as described above. Afterincubation, plates were examined using a binocular microscope. The E.coli exhibited moderate resistance to the bactericidal effects of thespectral silver emission, while the Klebsiella exhibited moderatesensitivity. All controls exhibited full growth.

Accordingly, an experiment was performed which demonstrated a similarresult using the physical silver catalyst as was obtained with the Agspectral catalyst. Sterile test discs were soaked in an 80 ppm,colloidal silver solution. The same two (2) organisms were again plated,as described above. Colloidal silver test discs were placed on each Agplate, while the control plates had none. The plates were incubated asdescribed above and examined under the binocular microscope. Thecolloidal silver E. coli exhibited moderate resistance to thebactericidal effects of the physical colloidal silver, while theKlebsiella again exhibited moderate sensitivity. All controls exhibitedfull growth.

Example 5 Augmenting a Physical Catalyst with a Spectral Catalyst

To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form waterutilizing a spectral catalyst to augment a physical catalyst,electrolysis of water was performed to provide the necessary oxygen andhydrogen starting gases, as in Example 1.

Two quartz flasks (A and B) were connected separately after the Drieritecolumn, each with its own set of vacuum and pressure gauges. Platinumpowder (about 31 mg) was placed in each flask. The flasks were filledwith electrolytically produced stoichiometric amounts of H₂ and O₂ to120 mm Hg. The flasks were separated by a stopcock from the electrolysissystem and from each other. The pressure in each flask was recorded overtime as the reaction proceeded over the physical platinum catalyst. Thereaction combines three (3) moles of gases, (i.e., two (2) moles H₂ andone (1) mole O₂), to produce two (2) moles H₂O. This decrease inmolarity, and hence progress of the reaction, can be monitored by adecrease in pressure “P” which is proportional, via the ideal gas law,(PV=nRT), to molarity “n”. A baseline rate of reaction was thusobtained. Additionally, the test was repeated filling each flask with H₂and O₂ to 220 mm Hg. Catalysis of the reaction by only the physicalcatalyst yielded two baseline reaction curves which were in goodagreement between flasks A and B, and for both the 110 mm and 220 mm Hgtests.

Next, the traditional physical platinum catalyst in flask A wasaugmented with spectral catalyst platinum emissions from two (2)parallel Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode Platinum Lamps, as in Example1, which were positioned approximately two (2) cm from flask A. The testwas repeated as described above, separating the two (2) flasks from eachother and monitoring the rate of the reaction via the pressure decreasein each. Flask B served as a control flask. In flask A, the oxygen andhydrogen gases, as well as the physical platinum catalyst, were directlyirradiated with emissions from the Pt lamp spectral catalyst.

Rate of reaction in the control flask B, was in good agreement withprevious baseline rates. Rate of reaction in flask “A”, wherein physicalplatinum catalyst was augmented with the platinum spectral pattern,exhibited an overall mean increase of 60%, with a maximal increase of70% over the baseline and flask B.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to change thechemical reaction properties of a solid catalyst in a gas phase(heterogeneous) reaction system.

Example 6 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Fine StructureHeterodyned Frequency and Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a FineStructure Frequency the Alpha Rotation-Vibration Constant

Water was electrolyzed to produce stoichiometric amounts of hydrogen andoxygen gases as described above herein. Additionally, a dry ice cooledstainless steel coil was placed immediately after the Drierite column.After vacuum removal of all gases in the system, electrolysis wasaccomplished using a 12 V power source attached to the two electrodes,resulting in a production of hydrogen and oxygen gases. After passingthrough the Drierite column, the hydrogen and oxygen gases passedthrough vacuum tubing connected to positive and negative pressuregauges, through the dry ice cooled stainless steel coil and then to a1,000 ml round, quartz flask. A strip of filter paper impregnated withdry (blue) cobalt was in the bottom of the quartz flask, as an indicatorof the presence or absence of water.

The entire system was vacuum evacuated to a pressure of about 700 mm Hgbelow atmospheric pressure. Electrolysis was performed, producinghydrogen and oxygen gases in stoichiometric amounts, to result in apressure of about 220 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure. The center ofthe quartz flask, now containing hydrogen and oxygen gases, wasirradiated for approximately 12 hours with continuous microwaveelectromagnetic radiation emitted from a Hewlett Packard microwavespectroscopy system which included an HP 83350B Sweep Oscillator, an HP8510B Network Analyzer and an HP 8513A Reflection Transmission Test Set.The frequency used was 21.4 GHz, which corresponds to a fine splittingconstant, the alpha rotation-vibration constant, of the hydroxyintermediate, and is thus a harmonic resonant heterodyne for the hydroxyradical. The cobalt strip changed strongly in color to pink whichindicated the presence of water in the quartz flask, whose creation wascatalyzed by a harmonic resonant heterodyne frequency for the hydroxyradical.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to control a gasphase chemical reaction.

Example 7 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Hyperfine SplittingFrequency

An experimental dark room was prepared, in which there is no ambientlight, and which can be totally darkened. A shielded, ground room (AceShielded Room, Ace, Philadelphia, Pa., US, Model A6H3-16; 8 feet wide,17 feet long, and 8 feet high (about 2. meters×5.2 meters×2.4 meters)copper mesh) was installed inside the dark room.

Hydrogen peroxide (3%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which werethen inverted in beakers filled with (3%) hydrogen peroxide, asdescribed in greater detail herein. The tubes were allowed to rest forabout 18 hours in the dark room, covered with non-metallic lightblocking hoods (so that the room could be entered without exposing thetubes to light). Baseline measurements of gases in the nippled tubeswere then performed.

Three nippled RF tubes were placed on a wooden grid table in theshielded room, in the center of grids 4, 54, and 127; corresponding todistances of about 107 cm, 187 cm, and 312 cm respectively, from afrequency-emitting antenna (copper tubing 15 mm diameter, 4.7 moctagonal circumference, with the center frequency at approximately 6.5MHz. A 25 watt, 17 MHz signal was sent to the antenna. This frequencycorresponds to a hyperfine splitting frequency of the hydrogen atom,which is a transient in the dissociation of hydrogen peroxide. Theantenna was pulsed continuously by a BK Precision RF Signal GeneratorModel 2005A, and amplified by an Amplifier Research amplifier, Model25A-100. A control tube was placed on a wooden cart immediately adjacentto the shielded room, in the dark room. All tubes were covered withnon-metallic light blocking hoods.

After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogenperoxide and resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes wasmeasured. The RF tube closest to the antenna produced 11 mm length gasin the capillary (34 mm³), the tube intermediate to the antenna produceda 5 mm length (10 mm³) gas, and the RF tube farthest from the antennaproduced no gas. The control tube produced 1 mm gas. Thus, it can beconcluded that the RF hyperfine splitting frequency for hydrogenincreased the reaction rate approximately five (5) to ten (10) times.

In this Example, targeted spectral energy was used to control a chemicalreaction in a liquid phase, resulting in a transformation to a gasphase.

Example 8 Replacing a Physical Catalyst with a Magnetic Field

Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which werethen inverted in beakers filled with (15%) hydrogen peroxide, asdescribed above. The tubes were allowed to rest for about four (4) hourson a wooden table in a shielded cage, in a dark room. Baselinemeasurements of gases in the nippled tubes were then performed.

Remaining in the shielded cage, in the dark room, two (2) control tubeswere left on a wooden table as controls. Two (2) magnetic field tubeswere placed on the center platform of an ETS Helmholtz single axis coil,Model 6402, 1.06 gauss/Ampere, pulsed at about 83 Hz by a BK Precision20 MHz Sweep/Function Generator, Model 4040. The voltage output of thefunction generator was adjusted to produce an alternating magnetic fieldof about 19.5 milliGauss on the center platform of the Helmholtz Coil,as measured by a Holaday Model HI-3627, three (3) axis ELF magneticfield meter and probe. Hydrogen atoms, which are a transient in thedissociation of hydrogen peroxide, exhibit nuclear magnetic resonancevia Zeeman splitting at this applied frequency and applied magneticfield strength. Thus, frequency of the alternating magnetic field wasresonant with the hydrogen transients.

After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogenperoxide and resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes wasmeasured. The control tubes averaged about 180 mm gas formation (540mm³) while the tubes exposed to the alternating magnetic field producedabout 810 mm gas (2,430 mm³), resulting in an increase in the reactionrate of approximately four (4) times.

Example 9 Negatively Catalyzing a Reaction with an Electric Field

Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in four (4) nippled quartz tubeswhich were inverted in hydrogen peroxide (15%) filled beakers, asdescribed in greater detail above herein. The tubes were placed on awooden table, in a shielded room, in a dark room. After four (4) hours,baseline measurements were taken of the gas in the capillary portion ofthe tubes.

An Amplifier Research self-contained electromagnetic mode cell (“TEM”)Model TC1510A had been placed in the dark, shielded room. A sine wavesignal of about 133 MHz was provided to the TEM cell by a BK PrecisionRF Signal Generator, Model 2005A, and an Amplifier Research amplifier,Model 25A100. Output levels on the signal generator and amplifier waveadjusted to produce an electric field (E-field) of about five (5) V/m inthe center of the TEM cell, as measured with a Holaday Industrieselectric field probe, Model HI-4433GRE, placed in the center of thelower chamber.

Two of the hydrogen peroxide filled tubes were placed in the center ofthe upper chamber of the TEM cell, about 35 cm from the wall of theshielded room. The other two (2) tubes served as controls and wereplaced on a wooden table, also about 35 cm from the same wall of theshielded, dark room, and removed from the immediate vicinity of the TEMcell, so that there was no ambient electric field, as confirmed byE-field probe measurements.

The 133 MHz alternating sine wave signal delivered to the TEM cell waswell above the typical line width frequency at room temperature (e.g.,about 100 KHz) and was theorized to be resonant with an n=20 Rydbergstate of the hydrogen atom as derived fromΔE=c E^(3/4)where E is the change in energy in cm⁻¹, c is 7.51+/−0.02 for thehydrogen state n=20 and E is the electric field intensity in (Kv/cm)².

After about five (5) hours of exposure to the electric field, the meangas production in the tubes subjected to the E-field was about 17.5 mm,while mean gas production in the control tubes was about 58 mm.

While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation,it is believed that the alternating electric field resonated with anupper energy level in the hydrogen atoms, producing a negative Starkeffect, and thereby negatively catalyzing the reaction.

Example 10 Augmentation of a Physical Catalyst by IrradiatingReactants/Transients with a Spectral Catalyst

Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced in stoichiometric amounts byelectrolysis, as previously described in greater detail above herein. Astainless steel coil cooled in dry ice was placed immediately after theDrierite column. Positive and negative pressure gauges were connectedafter the coil, and then a 1,000 ml round quartz flask was sequentiallyconnected with a second set of pressure gauges.

At the beginning of each experimental run, the entire system was vacuumevacuated to a pressure of about minus 650 mm Hg. The system was sealedfor about 15 minutes to confirm the maintenance of the generated vacuumand integrity of the connections. Electrolysis of water to producehydrogen and oxygen gases was performed, as described previously.

Initially, about 10 mg of finely divided platinum was placed into theround quartz flask. Reactant gases were allowed to react over theplatinum and the reaction rate was monitored by increasing the rate ofpressure drop over time, as previously described. The starting pressurewas approximately in the mid-90's mm Hg positive pressure, and theending pressure was approximately in the low 30's over the amount oftime that measurements were taken. Two (2) control runs were performed,with reaction rates of about 0.47 mm Hg/minute and about 0.48 mmHg/minute.

For the third run, a single platinum lamp was applied, as previouslydescribed, except that the operating current was reduced to about eight(8) mA and the lamp was positioned through the center of the flask toirradiate only the reactant/transient gases, and not the physicalplatinum catalyst. The reaction rate was determined, as described above,and was found to be about 0.63 mm Hg/minute, an increase of 34%.

Example 11 Apparent Poisoning of a Reaction by the Spectral Pattern of aPhysical Poison

The conversion of hydrogen and oxygen gases to water, over a steppedplatinum physical catalyst, is known to be poisoned by gold. Addition ofgold to this platinum catalyzed reaction reduces reaction rates by about95%. The gold blocks only about one sixth of the platinum binding sites,which according to prior art, would need to be blocked to poison thephysical catalyst to this degree. Thus, it was theorized that a spectralinteraction of the physical gold with the physical platinum and/orreaction system could also be responsible for the poisoning effects ofgold on the reaction. It was further theorized that addition of the goldspectral pattern to the reaction catalyzed by physical platinum couldalso poison the reaction.

Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced by electrolysis, as describedabove in greater detail. Finely directed platinum, about 15 mg, wasadded to the round quartz flask. Starting pressures were about in the90's mm Hg positive pressure, and ending pressures were about in the20's mm Hg over the amount of time that measurements were taken.Reaction rates were determined as previously described. The firstcontrol run revealed a reaction rate of about 0.81 mm Hg/minute.

In the second run, a Fisher Hollow Cathode Gold lamp was applied, aspreviously described, at an operating frequency of about eight (8) mA,(80% maximum current), through about the center of the round flask. Thereaction rate increased to about 0.87 mm Hg/minute.

A third run was then performed on the same reaction flask and physicalplatinum that had been in the flask exposed to the gold spectralpattern. The reaction rate decreased to about 0.75 mm Hg/minute.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to control anenvironmental reaction condition (poison) and change the chemicalreaction properties of a physical catalyst in a heterogeneous catalystreaction system.

Example 12 Increase in Measured pH in a NaCl/Water Solution Due to aSodium Spectral Pattern

This Example demonstrates the effects of conditioning a conditionableparticipant (distilled water) with a conditioning energy (sodium lamp)by dissolving crystalline sodium chloride (NaCl) into the water andmonitoring pH changes.

a) Equipment and Materials

The following reference numerals refer to those items shownschematically in FIGS. 70, 71 and 72, which correspond to Examples 12a,12b and 12c, respectively. FIG. 73 shows the pH electrode 109 in greaterdetail. Like reference numerals have been used whenever possible.

-   -   100—Bernzomatic propane fuel.    -   101—Humboldt Bunsen burner.    -   102—Ring stand.    -   103—Cast iron hot plate from Fisher Scientific.    -   104—1000 ml Pyrex™ cylindrical beaker.    -   105—A solution of water, or of sodium chloride and water.    -   Sodium Chloride, Fisher Chemicals, Lot No. 025149, packaged in        gray plastic 3 Kg bottles. The sodium chloride, in crystalline        form, is characterized as follows:    -   Sodium Chloride; Certified A.C.S.    -   Certificate of Lot Analysis        -   Barium (Ba) (about 0.001%)—P.T.        -   Bromide (Br)—0.01%        -   Calcium (Ca)—0.0007%        -   Chlorate and Nitrate (as NO₃)—0.0006%        -   Heavy Metals (as Pb)—0.4 ppm        -   Insoluble Matter—0.001%        -   Iodide (I)—0.0004%        -   Iron (Fe)—0.4 ppm        -   Magnesium (Mg)—0.0003%        -   Nitrogen Compounds (as N)—0.0003%        -   pH of 5% solution at 25° C.—6.8        -   Phosphate (PO₃)—1 ppm        -   Potassium (K)—0.001%        -   Sulfate (SO₄)—0.003%    -   Distilled Water—American Fare, contained in one (1) gallon        translucent, colorless, plastic jugs, processed by distillation,        microfiltration and ozonation. Source, Greeneville Municipal        Water supply, Greeneville, Tenn. Stored in cardboard boxes in a        dark, shielded room prior to use in the experiments described in        Examples 12a, 12b and 12c.    -   106—Support structure for pH meter.    -   107—An AR20 “pH/mV/° C./Conductivity” meter from Accumet        Research (Fisher Catalog No. 13-636-AR20 2000/2001 Catalog).    -   108—Temperature probe for pH meter.    -   109—pH Electrode for AR20 pH meter (Fisher 2000-2001 Catalog        #13-620-285); and shown in greater detail in FIG. 73.    -   110—Aluminum foil tube made from kitchen grade aluminum foil,        medium duty.    -   111—Stonco 70 watt high-pressure sodium security wall fixture        (TLW Series Twilighter Wallprism model) fitted with a parabolic        aluminum reflector which directs the light from the housing.    -   112—One or more sodium lamps, Stonco 70 Watt high-pressure        sodium security wall light, fitted with a parabolic aluminum        reflector directing the light away from the housing. The sodium        bulb was a Type S62 lamp, 120V, 60 Hz, 1.5A made in Hungary by        Jemanamjjasond. One or more sodium lamps was/were mounted at        various angles, and location(s) as specified in each experiment.        Unless stated differently in the Example, the lamp was located        at about 15 inches (about 38 cm) from the beakers or dishes to        maintain substantially consistent intensities.    -   113—Ring stand.    -   114—Chain clamp.

Experimental Procedure Example 12a

FIG. 70 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatebaseline measured pH information at about 55° C. as a function of time.In this Example 12a, the Bunsen burner 101 was supplied with propanefuel from the fuel source 100 via a flexible rubber tube 115. The flamefrom the Bunsen burner 101 was caused to be incident upon a cast ironhot plate 103 which was attached to a ring stand 102. A 1000 ml Pyrex™cylindrical beaker 104 was placed on top of the cast iron hot plate 103.The beaker 104 contained approximately 800 ml of distilled waterobtained from American Fare. An AR20 pH/mV/° C./Conductivity meter 107from Accumet Research communicated with the 800 ml of distilled waterand later with the solution 105 through a temperature probe 108 and a pHelectrode 109. More details of the pH electrode can be seen in FIG. 73.The pH meter was elevated to a convenient height by the use of a supportstructure 106.

The pH of the distilled water in the beaker 104 was first measured atroom temperature and then heated to about 55° C. in about 15-20 minutesby use of the Bunsen burner heating the hot plate 103 and the hot plate103 radiating its conditioning energy to the beaker 104 containing thedistilled water. The water temperature was monitored by the Accumetmeter 107. Once a temperature of about 55° C. was obtained, about 50grams of sodium chloride (certified A.C.S. and as discussed aboveherein), were added to the 800 ml of distilled water in the beaker 104to form the solution 105. The sodium chloride was stirred into the 800ml of distilled water by use of glass stirring rod and completedissolution of the sodium chloride occurred within about 30-45 seconds.The temperature of the solution 105 was reduced by approximately ½ to 1°C., but was quickly brought back to about 55° C. by the Bunsen burner101 and cast iron hot plate 103 in a matter of a few seconds. Theelectrodes 108 and 109 were temporarily removed from the solution 105 topermit the stirring, mixing and dissolution of the sodium chloride intothe distilled water. However, the electrodes 108 and 109 wereimmediately reinserted into the solution 105 upon completion of thestirring.

FIG. 74 a shows the results of three (3) separate experimentscorresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 70. The plotted datashow the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as a function of timeat a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pH of the distilledwater alone was first measured at room temperature and then measured atabout 55° C., and thereafter the pH of the solution 105 was measuredabout every two minutes after the addition and dissolution of sodiumchloride. The time measurements were all at intervals of about twominutes with a final measurement after about 40 minutes.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73), were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate. Asecond buffer solution had a pH of 7.00+/−0.01 at 25° C., and was asolution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide. Bothsolutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both were obtainedfrom Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions was intended toinsure accuracy of the readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eacheight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspended inpairs approximately 3.5 meters above the laboratory counter on which theexperimental set-up was located. There were six (6) pairs of lampspresent in a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about7.6 meters×12.1 meters).

Example 12b

FIG. 77 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatemeasured pH information at about 55° C. as a function of time. In thisExample 12b, the Bunsen burner 101 was supplied with propane fuel fromthe fuel source 100 via a flexible rubber tube 115. The flame from theBunsen burner 101 was caused to be incident upon a cast iron hot plate103 which was attached to a ring stand 102. A 1000 ml Pyrex™ cylindricalbeaker 104 was placed on top of the cast iron hot plate 103. The beaker104 contained approximately 800 ml of distilled water obtained fromAmerican Fare. An AR20 pH/mV/° C./Conductivity meter 107 from AccumetResearch communicated with the 800 ml of distilled water and later withthe solution 105 through a temperature probe 108 and a pH electrode 109.More details of the pH electrode can be seen in FIG. 773. The pH meterwas elevated to a convenient height by the use of a support structure106.

The pH of the distilled water in the beaker 104 was first measured atroom temperature and then heated to about 55° C. in about 15-20 minutesby use of the Bunsen burner heating the hot plate 103. The watertemperature was monitored by the Accumet meter 107. Once a temperatureof about 55° C. was obtained, about 50 grams of sodium chloride(certified A.C.S. and discussed above herein), were added to the 800 mlof distilled water in the beaker 104 to form the solution 105. Thesodium chloride was stirred into the 800 ml of distilled water by use ofglass stirring rod and complete dissolution of the sodium chlorideoccurred within about 30-45 seconds. The temperature of the solution 105was reduced by approximately ½ to 1° C., but was quickly brought back toabout 55° C. by the Bunsen burner 101 and cast iron hot plate 103 in amatter of a few seconds. The electrodes 108 and 109 were temporarilyremoved from the solution 105 to permit the stirring, mixing anddissolution of the sodium chloride into the distilled water. However,the electrodes 108 and 109 were immediately reinserted upon completionof the stirring.

A ring stand 113 was positioned adjacent to the ring stand 102 such thata high pressure sodium light 112 contained within a housing 111, andsurrounded by an aluminum foil tube 110 permitted light emitted from thebulb 112 to be transmitted through the aluminum foil tube 110 and becomeincident upon a side of the beaker 104. The ring stand 113 waspositioned such that the end of the aluminum tube 110 adjacent to theside of the beaker 104 was about ½ inch to ¾ inch away from the side ofthe beaker 104. The tube 110 measured about eight (8) inches long andwas about 3½ inches in diameter. The top end of the sodium light bulb112 was about five (5) inches from the end of the tube 110. In thisExample 12b, the sodium light bulb 112 was actuated at about the sametime that the electrodes 108 and 109 were reinserted into the solution105 which is after the sodium chloride had been mixed into and dissolvedin the distilled water. The light fixture 111 was fixed to the ringstand 113 by use of a chain clamp 114.

FIG. 74 b shows the results of three (3) separate experimentscorresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 71. The plotted datashow the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as a function of timeat a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pH of the distilledwater alone was first measured at room temperature and then measured atabout 55° C., and thereafter measured about every two minutes after theaddition and dissolution of sodium chloride and the activation of thehigh pressure sodium light 112. The time measurements were all atintervals of about two minutes.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73) were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate.A second buffer solution had a pH of 7.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., andwas a solution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide. Bothsolutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both were obtainedfrom Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions was intended toinsure accuracy of the pH readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eachabout eight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspendedin pairs approximately 3.5 meters above the laboratory counter on whichthe experimental set-up was located. There were six (6) pairs of lampspresent in a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about7.6 meters×12.1 meters).

Example 12c

FIG. 72 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatemeasured pH information where the temperature of the distilled water inthe beaker 104, and later in the solution 105, in the beaker 104 washeated exclusively by use of a high pressure sodium bulb 112 containedin a fixture 111.

This Example 12c differs from the previous Examples 12a and 12b in thatno Bunsen burner was provided for heating. In this regard, the only heatthat was generated from the energy emitted by the combination of thehigh-pressure sodium bulb 112, and the fixture 111. In particular, theenergy was transmitted to the bottom of the beaker 104 initiallycontaining the distilled water, and later to the solution 105, throughthe use of the aluminum foil tube 110. Specifically, the ring stand 102supported the beaker 104 by the use of the chain clamp 114. The beaker104 was initially lowered into the aluminum foil tube 110 such thatapproximately 150-200 ml of the distilled water contained in the beaker104 was physically located inside of the aluminum foil tube 110. Thetube 110 measured about seven (7) inches long and was about four (4)inches in diameter. The top end of the sodium light bulb 112 was aboutfour (4) inches from the end of the tube 110. Once the distilled watertemperature achieved about 55° C. after about 1¼-1½ hours, the sodiumchloride was added, as discussed above. The chain clamp 114 was thenraised vertically slightly upon the ring stand 102 so that the bottom ofthe beaker 104 was now positioned slightly outside of the aluminum foiltube 110 (as shown in FIG. 72). Experience caused the precise finallocation of the bottom of the beaker 104 to be about ½ inch-¾ inch abovethe end of the aluminum foil tube 110. The primary difference betweenthis Example 12c and the previous two Examples 12a and 12b is that theonly energy provided to the distilled water and the solution 105 camefrom the combination of the sodium bulb 112 and the fixture 111.

FIG. 74 c shows the results of three (3) separate experimentscorresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 72. The plotted datashow the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as a function of timeat a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pH of the distilledwater alone was first measured at room temperature and then measured atabout 55° C., and thereafter the pH of the solution 105 was measuredabout every two minutes after the addition and dissolution of sodiumchloride. The time measurements were all at intervals of about twominutes.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73) were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate.A second buffer solution had a pH of 7.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., andwas a solution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide. Bothsolutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both were obtainedfrom Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions was intended toinsure accuracy of the pH readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eachabout eight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspendedin pairs approximately 3.5 meters above the laboratory counter on whichthe experimental set-up was located. There were six (6) of lamps presentin a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about 7.6meters×12.1 meters).

Example 12d

FIG. 71 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatemeasured pH information at about 55° C. as a function of time. In thisExample 12d, a ring stand 113 was positioned adjacent to the ring stand102 such that a high pressure sodium light 112 contained within ahousing 111, and surrounded by an aluminum foil tube 110 permitted lightemitted from the bulb 112 to be transmitted through the aluminum foiltube 110 and become incident upon a side of the beaker 104. The ringstand 113 was positioned such that the end of the aluminum tube 110adjacent to the side of the beaker 104 was about ½ inch to ¾ inch (about2.0 cm to about 2.5 cm) away from the side of the beaker 104. The tube110 measured about eight (8) inches (about 2.4 meters) long and wasabout 3½ inches (about 8.5 cm) in diameter. The top end of the sodiumlight bulb 112 was about five (5) inches (about 12.5 cm) from the end ofthe tube 110. In this Example 12d, the sodium light bulb 112 wasactuated about 40 minutes before heating the water with the Bunsenburner and irradiated the solution continuously throughout the pHmeasurements. The light fixture 111 was fixed to the ring stand 113 byuse of a chain clamp 114.

The Bunsen burner 101 was supplied with propane fuel from the fuelsource 100 via a flexible rubber tube 115. The flame from the Bunsenburner 101 was caused to be incident upon a cast iron hot plate 103which was attached to a ring stand 102. A 1000-ml Pyrex™ cylindricalbeaker 104 was placed on top of the cast iron hot plate 103. The beaker104 contained approximately 800 ml of distilled water obtained fromAmerican Fare. An AR20 pH/mV/° C./Conductivity meter 107 from AccumetResearch communicated with the 800 ml of distilled water and later withthe solution 105 through a temperature probe 108 and a pH electrode 109.More details of the pH electrode can be seen in FIG. 73. The pH meterwas elevated to a convenient height by the use of a support structure106.

The pH of the distilled water in the beaker 104 was first measured atroom temperature before actuating the sodium lamp. After the 40 minuteNa lamp conditioning, the water was then heated to about 55° C. in about15-20 minutes by use of the Bunsen burner heating the hot plate 103. Thewater temperature was monitored by the Accumet meter 107. Once atemperature of about 55° C. was obtained, about 50 grams of sodiumchloride (certified A.C.S. and discussed above herein), were added tothe 800 ml of distilled water in the beaker 104 to form the solution105. The sodium chloride was stirred into the 800 ml of distilled waterby use of glass stirring rod and complete dissolution of the sodiumchloride occurred within about 30-45 seconds. The temperature of thesolution 105 was reduced by approximately ½ to 1° C., but was quicklybrought back to about 55° C. by the Bunsen burner 101 and cast iron hotplate 103 in a matter of a few seconds. The electrodes 108 and 109 weretemporarily removed from the solution 105 to permit the stirring, mixingand dissolution of the sodium chloride into the distilled water.However, the electrodes 108 and 109 were immediately reinserted uponcompletion of the stirring.

FIG. 74 e shows the results of three (3) separate experimentscorresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 71. The plotted datashow the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as a function of timeat a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pH of the distilledwater alone was first measured at room temperature and then measured atabout 55° C., and thereafter measured about every two minutes after theaddition and dissolution of sodium chloride and the activation of thehigh pressure sodium light 112. The time measurements were all atintervals of about two minutes.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73) were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate.A second buffer solution had a pH of 7.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., andwas a solution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide. Bothsolutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both were obtainedfrom Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions was intended toinsure accuracy of the pH readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eachabout eight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspendedin pairs approximately 3.5 feet above the laboratory counter on whichthe experimental set-up was located. There were six (6) pairs of lampspresent in a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about2.6 meters×12.1 meters).

Example 12e

FIG. 71 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatemeasured pH information at about 55° C. as a function of time. In thisExample 12e, a ring stand 113 was positioned adjacent to the ring stand102 such that a high pressure sodium light 112 contained within ahousing 111, and surrounded by an aluminum foil tube 110 permitted lightemitted from the bulb 112 to be transmitted through the aluminum foiltube 110 and become incident upon a side of the beaker 104. The ringstand 113 was positioned such that the end of the aluminum tube 110adjacent to the side of the beaker 104 was about ½ inch to ¾ inch (about2.0 cm to about 2.5 cm) away from the side of the beaker 104. The tube110 measured about eight (8) inches (about 2.4 cm) long and was about 3½inches (about 8.5 cm) in diameter. The top end of the sodium light bulb112 was about five (5) inches (about 12.5 cm) from the end of the tube110. In this Example 12e, the sodium light bulb 112 was actuated about40 minutes and then terminated, before heating the water with the Bunsenburner. The light fixture 111 was fixed to the ring stand 113 by use ofa chain clamp 114.

The Bunsen burner 101 was supplied with propane fuel from the fuelsource 100 via a flexible rubber tube 115. The flame from the Bunsenburner 101 was caused to be incident upon a cast iron hot plate 103which was attached to a ring stand 102. A 1000-ml Pyrex™ cylindricalbeaker 104 was placed on top of the cast iron hot plate 103. The beaker104 contained approximately 800 ml of distilled water obtained fromAmerican Fare. An AR20 pH/mV/° C./Conductivity meter 107 from AccumetResearch communicated with the 800 ml of distilled water and later withthe solution 105 through a temperature probe 108 and a pH electrode 109.More details of the pH electrode can be seen in FIG. 73. The pH meterwas elevated to a convenient height by the use of a support structure106.

The pH of the distilled water in the beaker 104 was first measured atroom temperature, before actuating the sodium lamp conditioning. Afterthe 40 minutes of sodium lamp conditioning of the water, the water wasthen heated to about 55° C. in about 15-20 minutes by use of the Bunsenburner heating the hot plate 103. The water temperature was monitored bythe Accumet meter 107. Once a temperature of about 55° C. was obtained,about 50 grams of sodium chloride (certified A.C.S. and discussed aboveherein), were added to the 800 ml of distilled water in the beaker 104to form the solution 105. The sodium chloride was stirred into the 800ml of distilled water by use of glass stirring rod and completedissolution of the sodium chloride occurred within about 30-45 seconds.The temperature of the solution 105 was reduced by approximately ½ to 1°C., but was quickly brought back to about 55° C. by the Bunsen burner101 and cast iron hot plate 103 in a matter of a few seconds. Theelectrodes 108 and 109 were temporarily removed from the solution 105 topermit the stirring, mixing and dissolution of the sodium chloride intothe distilled water. However, the electrodes 108 and 109 wereimmediately reinserted upon completion of the stirring.

FIG. 74 f shows the results of three (3) separate experimentscorresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 71. The plotted datashow the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as a function of timeat a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pH of the distilledwater alone was first measured at room temperature and then measured atabout 55° C., and thereafter measured about every two minutes after theaddition and dissolution of sodium chloride and the activation of thehigh pressure sodium light 112. The time measurements were all atintervals of about two minutes.

FIG. 74 g shows the averages calculated from the data from each of thethree (3) series of experiments from each of Examples 12a, 12b and 12e.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73) were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate.A second buffer solution had a pH of about 7.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C.,and was a solution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide.Both solutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both wereobtained from Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions wasintended to insure accuracy of the pH readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eachabout eight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspendedin pairs approximately 3.5 meters above the laboratory counter on whichthe experimental set-up was located. There were six (6) pairs of lampspresent in a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about7.6 meters×12.1 meters).

Example 12f

FIG. 71 is a schematic of the experimental apparatus used to generatemeasured pH information at about 55° C. as a function of time. In thisExample 12f, a ring stand 113 was positioned adjacent to the ring stand102 such that a high pressure sodium light 112 contained within ahousing 111, and surrounded by an aluminum foil tube 110 permitted lightemitted from the bulb 112 to be transmitted through the aluminum foiltube 110 and become incident upon a side of the beaker 104. The ringstand 113 was positioned such that the end of the aluminum tube 110adjacent to the side of the beaker 104 was about ½ inch to ¾ inch (about1 cm to about 1.5 cm) away from the side of the beaker 104. The tube 110measured about eight (8) inches long (about 20 cm) and was about 3½inches (about 8.5 cm) in diameter. The top end of the sodium light bulb112 was about five (5) inches (about 12.5 cm) from the end of the tube110. In this Example 12f, the sodium light bulb 112 was actuated about40 minutes, terminated, and pH was measured. The light fixture 111 wasfixed to the ring stand 113 by use of a chain clamp 114.

The Bunsen burner 101 was supplied with propane fuel from the fuelsource 100 via a flexible rubber tube 115. The flame from the Bunsenburner 101 was caused to be incident upon a cast iron hot plate 103which was attached to a ring stand 102. A 1000-ml Pyrex™ cylindricalbeaker 104 was placed on top of the cast iron hot plate 103. The beaker104 contained approximately 800 ml of distilled water obtained fromAmerican Fare. An AR20 pH/mV/° C./Conductivity meter 107 from AccumetResearch communicated with the 800 ml of distilled water and later withthe solution 105 through a temperature probe 108 and a pH electrode 109.More details of the pH electrode can be seen in FIG. 73. The pH meterwas elevated to a convenient height by the use of a support structure106.

The pH of the distilled water in the beaker 104 was first measured atroom temperature, before actuating the sodium lamp conditioning. Afterthe 40 minutes sodium lamp conditioning of the water, the following timeintervals elapsed before heating the water to 55° C. with the Bunsenburner: 1) 0 minutes; 2) 20 minutes; 3) 40 minutes; 4) 60 minutes; and5) 120 minutes. The water was then heated to about 55° C. in about 5minutes by use of the Bunsen burner heating the hot plate 103. The watertemperature was monitored by the Accumet meter 107. Once a temperatureof about 55° C. was obtained, about 50 grams of sodium chloride(certified A.C.S. and discussed above herein), were added to the 800 mlof distilled water in the beaker 104 to form the solution 105. Thesodium chloride was stirred into the 800 ml of distilled water by use ofglass stirring rod and complete dissolution of the sodium chlorideoccurred within about 30-45 seconds. The temperature of the solution 105was reduced by approximately ½ to 1° C., but was quickly brought back toabout 55° C. by the Bunsen burner 101 and cast iron hot plate 103 in amatter of a few seconds. The electrodes 108 and 109 were temporarilyremoved from the solution 105 to permit the stirring, mixing anddissolution of the sodium chloride into the distilled water. However,the electrodes 108 and 109 were immediately reinserted upon completionof the stirring.

FIG. 74 h shows the results of three (3) separate experiments (#'s 3, 4,and 5) corresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 71,representing decay curves for the Na lamp conditioning effect in water.The plotted data show the change in measured pH of the solution 105 as afunction of time at a temperature of about 55° C. In particular, the pHof the distilled water alone was first measured at room temperature andthen measured when the sodium lamp was terminated, and thereaftermeasured about every two minutes after the addition and dissolution ofsodium chloride. The time measurements were all at intervals of abouttwo (2) minutes for 20 minutes, with a final measurement at about 40minutes.

FIG. 74 i shows the results of three (3) separate experiments (#'s 1, 2and 3) corresponding to the experimental apparatus of FIG. 71,representing activation curves for the Na lamp conditioning effect inwater.

The AR20 meter 107, which used the pH electrode 109 (the electrode beingshown in more detail in FIG. 73) were together calibrated by using twodifferent buffer solutions. The first buffer solution had a pH of4.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., and was a solution of potassium bipthalate.A second buffer solution had a pH of 7.00+/−0.01 at about 25° C., andwas a solution of potassium phosphate monobasic-sodium hydroxide. Bothsolutions were 0.05 Molar, both were certified and both were obtainedfrom Fisher Chemicals. The use of these buffer solutions was intended toinsure accuracy of the pH readings from the pH electrode.

All experimental conditions described in the Example occurred in thepresence of standard fluorescent lighting. The fluorescent lamps wereSylvania Cool White Deluxe Fluorescent Lamps, 75 watts and were eachabout eight (8) feet (about 2.4 meters) long. The lamps were suspendedin pairs approximately 3.5 meters above the laboratory counter on whichthe experimental set-up was located. There were six (6) pairs of lampspresent in a room which measured approximately 25 feet by 40 feet (about2.6 meters×12.1 meters).

Discussion of Examples 12a, 12b, 12c, 12d, 12e and 12f

FIG. 74 d shows the averages calculated from the data from each of thethree (3) series of experiments from each of Examples 12a, 12b and 12c.The data show that the Bunsen burner-only heating corresponding toExample 12a and FIG. 70 had the smallest overall measured rise in pHafter a period of time of approximately 4-6 minutes. The data generatedfrom Example 12b, and corresponding to FIG. 71, showed an intermediaterise in measured pH with time after about 4-6 minutes. In Example 12b,the sodium spectral pattern was added only at the point when thesolution 105 had attained a temperature of about 55° C.

The greatest overall increase in measured pH from a time of about 2-40minutes was shown in the data corresponding to Example 12c, whichcorresponds to the experimental apparatus shown in FIG. 7. In thisExample 12c, the distilled water in the beaker 104, was exposed to thesodium spectral pattern emitted from the sodium light bulb 112 for thelongest amount of time (e.g., energy was provided to the distilled waterand the solution 105 exclusively through the combination of the sodiumlight bulb 112 and the fixture 111) which was about 1¼-1½ hours to heatthe water to about 55° C. and then for an additional 40 minutes whilethe pH measurements were made.

Accordingly, the data shown in FIG. 74 d clearly show the effect of asodium spectral pattern upon the measured pH of the sodiumchloride/water solution 105, as measured by an AR20 meter from AccumetResearch used in combination with a pH electrode 109 (as shown in moredetail in FIG. 73).

FIG. 74 g shows the averages calculated from the data from each of thethree (3) series of experiments from each of Examples 12a, 12b and 12e.The data show that the Bunsen burner-only heating corresponding toExample 12a and FIG. 70 had the smallest overall measured rise in pHafter a period of time of approximately 4-6 minutes. The data generatedfrom Example 12b, and corresponding to FIG. 71, showed an intermediaterise in measured pH with time after about 4-6 minutes. In Example 12e,the water was conditioned by the sodium spectral pattern, after which itwas heated to 55° C. and the NaCl was added and dissolved.

The greatest overall increase in measured pH from a time of about 2-40minutes was shown in the data corresponding to Example 12e, whichcorresponds to the experimental apparatus shown in FIG. 71. In thisExample 12e, the distilled water in the beaker 104, was exposed to theconditioning sodium spectral pattern emitted from the sodium light bulb112 for about forty (40) minutes (e.g., conditioning energy was providedto the distilled water 105 exclusively with the sodium light bulb 112for about 40 minutes).

Accordingly, the data shown in FIG. 74 g clearly show the pH effect of aconditioning sodium spectral pattern upon distilled water, which islater used to make a sodium chloride/water solution 105, as measured byan AR20 meter from Accumet Research used in combination with a pHelectrode 109 (as shown in more detail in FIG. 73).

FIG. 74 h shows the experimental data from each of the three (3)experiments from Example 12f3, 12f4, and 12f5. The data (12f5) show thatthe 120-minute interval between conditioning of the distilled water anddissolution of the NaCl salt had the smallest overall measured rise inpH after a period of time of approximately 40 minutes. The datagenerated from Example 12f4, after about a 60 minute interval betweenconditioning of the distilled water and dissolution of the NaCl salt,showed an intermediate rise in measured pH with time after about 40minutes. In Example 12f3, the water was conditioned by the sodiumspectral pattern, and the interval between conditioning and dissolutionof the NaCl salt was only about 40 minutes. Example 12f3 showed thegreatest rise in pH.

Accordingly, the data shown in FIG. 74 h clearly show a time-relateddecay effect of a conditioning sodium spectral pattern upon distilledwater, which is later used to make a sodium chloride/water solution 105,as measured by an AR20 meter from Accumet Research used in combinationwith a pH electrode 109 (as shown in more detail in FIG. 73). Theconditioning effects of a sodium spectral pattern upon distilled waterremained in the water for a period of time approximately equal to theconditioning time. After an interval of 1.5 times the conditioning time,the conditioning effects of a sodium spectral pattern upon distilledwater were beginning to decline. Finally, after an interval of 3.0 timesthe conditioning time, the conditioning effects of a sodium spectralpattern upon distilled water declined still further.

FIG. 74 i shows the experimental data from each of the three (3)experiments from Example 12f1 12f2, and 121f3. The data (12f2 and 12f3)shows that the 20 and 40-minute intervals between conditioning of thedistilled water and dissolution of the NaCl salt had the greatestoverall measured rise in pH after a period of time of approximately 40minutes. The data generated from Example 12f1, after a zero (0) minuteinterval between conditioning of the distilled water, and heating of thewater and dissolution of the NaCl salt, showed a lower rise in measuredpH with time after about 40 minutes.

Accordingly, the data shown in FIG. 74 i clearly show a time-relatedactivation effect of a conditioning sodium spectral pattern upondistilled water, which is later used to make a sodium chloride/watersolution 105, as measured by an AR20 meter from Accumet Research used incombination with a pH electrode 109 (as shown in more detail in FIG.73). The conditioning effects of a sodium spectral pattern upondistilled water reach their peak in the water after a period of timeapproximately equal to about 0.5-1.0 times the conditioning time.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies and environmental reactionconditions were used to affect phase change in solid and materialproperties of a liquid.

Example 12g Changes in pH Due to Effects of Na Lamp Conditioned NaCl onpH

Sodium chloride (about 50 grams) was spread into a thin layer under asodium lamp in an otherwise dark room overnight. The next day the saltwas used in a pH experiment.

Overhead fluorescent lighting was present continuously throughout bothexperiments. Water (about 800 ml) was placed in a 1000-ml beaker and thepH was measured. The water was next heated to about 55° C. and pH wasmeasured again. The water temperature was maintained at about 55° C. forthe remainder of the experiment. NaCl (about 50 grams) was added andstirred with a glass stir rod. Ten additional pH measurements were takenabout every two (2) minutes after the addition of the NaCl, for a totalof about 20 minutes. Final pH was measured about 40 minutes afteraddition of the NaCl. FIG. 74 j shows pH as a function of time for twosets of experiments where sodium chloride solid was conditioned prior tobeing dissolved in water.

One series of pH tests was performed on a solution made with the regularsalt (which had not been conditioned), and one series of tests wasperformed on the solution made with the conditioned salt.

Results: The pH increased more when the salt had been conditioned withits own Na spectral energy pattern. This same effect was seen in othersimilar experiments. When significantly larger amounts of salt in a muchthicker layer were irradiated with the same intensity, this effect wasnot nearly so pronounced, or was not seen at all.

In this Example, targeted spectral energies were used to change thematerial properties of a solid upon subsequent phase change into aliquid solution.

Example 13 Conductivity

For the following Example 13, the below-listed Equipment, materials andexperimental procedures were utilized.

a) Equipment and Materials

-   -   Accumet Research AR20 pH/Conductivity Meter, calibrated with        reference solutions prior to all experiments.    -   Traceable Conductivity Calibration Standard—Catalog #09-328-3    -   MicroMHOS/cm—1,004.    -   Microseimens/cm—1,004.    -   ohms/cm—99.    -   PPM D.S. —669.    -   Accuracy @25° C. (+/−0.25%).    -   Size—16oz (473 ml).    -   Analysis #−2713.    -   Conductivity probe #13-620-155 with thermocouple.    -   Humbolt Bunsen burner with Bernozomatic propane fuel. Ring stand        and Fisher cast iron ring and heating plate.    -   One or more sodium lamps, Stonco 70 Watt high-pressure sodium        security wall light, fitted with a parabolic aluminum reflector        directing the light away from the housing. The sodium bulb was a        Type S62 lamp, 120V, 60 Hz, 1.5 A made in Hungary by        Jemanamjjasond. One or more sodium lamps was/were mounted at        various angles, and location(s) as specified in each experiment.        Unless stated differently in the Example, the lamp was located        at about 15 inches (about 38 cm) from the beakers or dishes to        maintain substantially consistent intensities.    -   Sterile water—Bio Whittaker, contained in one liter clear,        plastic bottles, processed by ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis,        deionization, and distillation.

Example 13 Conductivity of Sodium Chloride Aqueous Solution

Procedures similar to those discussed in detail in Example 12 werefollowed with the following specific differences.

Water (about 800 ml) was placed in a 1000 ml beaker and room temperaturemeasurements were obtained for conductivity (S/cm), dissolved solids(ppm), and resistance (kOhms), after allowing about 10 minutes for theprobe to equilibrate to the water. The water was then heated to about56.1° C., and measurements were repeated. Sodium chloride (about 0.01gram) was added and stirred with a glass stir rod for about 30 seconds.Measurements of conductivity were obtained about every 2 minutes forabout 20 minutes, and a final measurement was taken at about 40 minutes.Dissolved solids and resistance measurements were also obtained at about4 minutes, at about 14 minutes, and at about 20 minutes after adding thesalt.

The experimental apparatuses used to obtain data are shown in FIGS. 70and 71. A conditioning probe was substituted for the pH probe of Example12.

Four sets of parameters were evaluated, with three tests within eachset:

1. Bunsen burner heating only (apparatus corresponding to FIG. 70);

2. Sodium lamp irradiation of water about 40 minutes before adding thesalt (apparatus corresponding to FIG. 71);

3. Sodium lamp irradiation of water about 40 minutes after adding thesalt (apparatus corresponding to FIG. 71);

4. Sodium lamp irradiation of water about 40 minutes before and afteradding the salt (apparatus corresponding to FIG. 71).

Results: Conductivity appears to be increased with sodium lampirradiation after addition of the sodium chloride.

FIG. 75 a is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of Bunsen burner-onlydata.

FIG. 75 b is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only) for Bunsenburner-only data.

FIG. 75 c is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of Bunsen burner-onlydata, the plot beginning with the data point generated two minutes aftersodium chloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 d is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp for about 40 minutesbefore the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 e is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only),corresponding to the water being conditioned by the sodium lamp forabout 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 f is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp for about 40 minutesbefore the sodium chloride was dissolved therein.

FIG. 75 g is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe solution of sodium chloride and water being irradiated with aspectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginning when the sodiumchloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 h is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only)corresponding to the solution of sodium chloride and water beingirradiated with a spectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginningwhen the sodium chloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 i is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe solution of sodium chloride and water being irradiated with aspectral energy pattern of a sodium lamp beginning when the sodiumchloride was added to the water.

FIG. 75 j is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp spectral conditioningpattern for about 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was added to thewater; and continually irradiating the water with the sodium lightspectral pattern while sodium chloride is added thereto and remaining onwhile all conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 k is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of temperature (two separate data points only) for threesets of data, corresponding to the water being conditioned by the sodiumlamp spectral conditioning pattern for about 40 minutes before thesodium chloride was dissolved; and continually irradiating the waterwith the sodium light spectral pattern while sodium chloride is addedthereto and remaining on while all conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 l is a graph of the experimental data which shows conductivityas a function of time for three separate sets of data corresponding tothe water being conditioned by the sodium lamp spectral conditioningpattern for about 40 minutes before the sodium chloride was dissolved;and continually irradiating the water with the sodium light spectralpattern while sodium chloride is added thereto and remaining on whileall conductivity measurements were taken.

FIG. 75 m is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 a, 75 d, 75 g and 75 j.

FIG. 75 n is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 b, 75 e, 75 h and 75 k.

FIG. 75 o is a graph of the experimental data which superimposesaverages from the data in FIGS. 75 c, 75 f, 75 i and 75 j.

In this Example, targeted spectral patterns and/or targeted spectralconditioning patterns were used to change the material properties of asolvent and/or solvent/solute system.

Example 14 Batteries

For the following Examples 14a and 14b the following Equipment,materials and experimental procedures were utilized.

a) Equipment and Materials

-   -   Sterile water—Bio Whittaker, contained in one liter clear,        plastic bottles, processed by ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis,        deionization, and distillation.    -   Sodium Chloride, Fisher Chemicals, Lot No. 025149, packaged in        gray plastic 3 Kg bottles. The sodium chloride, in crystalline        form, is characterized as follows:    -   Sodium Chloride; Certified A.C.S.    -   Certificate of Lot Analysis        -   Barium (Ba) (about 0.001%)—P.T.        -   Bromide (Br)—0.01%        -   Calcium (Ca)—0.0007%        -   Chlorate and Nitrate (as NO₃)—0.0006%        -   Heavy Metals (as Pb)—0.4 ppm        -   Insoluble Matter—0.001%        -   Iodide (I)—0.0004%        -   Iron (Fe)—0.4 ppm        -   Magnesium (Mg)—0.0003%        -   Nitrogen Compounds (as N)—0.0003%        -   pH of 5% solution at 25° C.—6.8        -   Phosphate (PO₃)—1 ppm        -   Potassium (K)—0.001%        -   Sulfate (SO₄)—0.003%    -   Battery anodes by Sovietski; #150400; Magnesium and aluminum    -   Battery/flashlight assembly:Aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)        electrolyte powered flashlight by Sovietski; #150400; double        cathode/anode configuration    -   Sodium (Na) Lamp, Stonco 70 Watt High-Pressure sodium security        wall light fitted with a parabolic aluminum reflector directing        the light away from the housing, oriented horizontally.    -   Receptacle, clear plastic box 7.5×5.75×3.75 inches    -   American Fare distilled water, in one gallon semi-opaque        colorless plastic jugs, processed by distillation,        microfiltration and ozonation. Source: Greenville Municipal        water supply, Greenville, Tenn. Stored in shielded, darkened        room, in cardboard boxes.    -   Grounded, dark enclosure: 6 ft.×3 ft×1½ ft metal cabinets. (24        gauge metal); flat black paint inside    -   Load box Ammeter/Voltmeter (Fuel Cell Store) Heliocentris        #DBGMNR29126811 with 10 ohm load    -   Fisher Brand Dual Channel Thermometer with Offset    -   2000 ml Pyrex beaker

Example 14a Enhanced Sodium Chloride Battery Current with SodiumSpectral Irradiation

FIG. 76 shows an aqueous NaCl battery/flashlight assembly 308. Twoassemblies 308 were placed side-by-side in a grounded, dark enclosure.Electrolyte 310 was distilled water (about 1700 ml) and NaCl (about 97g) mixed at the same time at room temperature in 2000-ml Pyrex beakers.Thermometer wires 309 were placed on the bottom center of theelectrolyte receptacles 307. FIG. 77 shows Sodium lamp 112 in a housing111 with an aluminum foil cylinder 110 that was positioned to theoutside of each electrolyte receptacle 307 allowing delivery of sodiumspectral irradiation through the outside of the receptacle 307, into theelectrolyte solution 310, and onto the outside of the anode plate 306.

The electrolyte receptacles 307 were filled with electrolyte 310, theanode/cathode assembly 301 was lowered into the electrolyte 310, and theflashlights 303 of each assembly 308 were turned on throughout theexperiment. Initial measurements of current (mAmps) and temperature wereperformed and then measured again every 40 minutes.

The sodium lamp was cycled as follows:

-   -   1. Off first 40 minutes;    -   2. On second 40 minutes;    -   3. Off third 40 minutes;    -   4. On fourth 40 minutes.

Results: As shown in FIG. 78, the standard initial current increaseoccurred with the sodium lamp turned off. The current increase continuedwith the sodium lamp turned on during the second 40 minutes. When thesodium lamp was turned off at 80 minutes however, the current stoppedincreasing and stayed essentially the same to 120 minutes. When thesodium lamp was turned on again at 120 minutes, the current againincreased. Finally, when the sodium lamp was turned the current remainedthe same.

These current characteristics were not related to temperature. Althoughthe temperature increased between 80 and 120 minutes and between 160 and200 minutes, when the sodium lamp was off, the current did not increase,suggesting that current increase was not due to an increase intemperature.

Example 14b Enhanced Sodium Chloride Battery Current with SodiumSpectral Irradiation

FIG. 76 shows an aqueous NaCl battery/flashlight assembly 308. Twoassemblies 308 were placed side-by-side in a grounded, dark enclosure.Electrolyte 310 was distilled water (about 1700 ml) and NaCl (about 97g) mixed at the same time at room temperature in 2000-ml Pyrex beakers.FIG. 77 shows Sodium lamp 112 in a housing 111 with an aluminum foilcylinder 110 that was positioned to the outside of each electrolytereceptacle 307 allowing delivery of sodium spectral irradiation throughthe outside of the receptacle 307, into the electrolyte solution 310,and onto the outside of the anode plate 306.

The electrolyte receptacles 307 were filled with electrolyte 310, theanode/cathode assembly 301 was lowered into the electrolyte 310, and theflashlights 303 of each assembly 308 were turned on throughout theexperiment. Initial measurements of current (mAmps) and temperature wereperformed and then measured again every 10 minutes.

T sodium lamp was cycled as follows:

-   -   1. Off 0-40 minutes;    -   2. Off 40-70 minutes;    -   2. On 70-110 minutes;    -   3. Off 110-150 minutes;    -   4. On 150-190 minutes.

Results: As shown in FIG. 79, the standard initial current increaseoccurred with the sodium lamp turned off. Rate of rise of current hadslowed by 40 minutes. The current increased faster with the sodium lampturned on between 70 and 110 minutes. When the sodium lamp was turnedoff at from 110-150 minutes, the rate of current increase went down.When the sodium lamp was turned on again at 150 minutes, the rate ofcurrent increase went up again.

In these examples, the spectral energy pattern of sodium was used toincrease current in an electrolyte.

Example 15 Corrosion Corrosion of Steel Razor Blades in AqueousSolutions

For the following Examples 15a and 15b, the following Equipment,materials and experimental procedures were utilized.

a) Equipment and Materials

-   -   Sterile water, BioWhittaker, contained in one liter clear,        plastic bottles, processed by ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis,        deionization, and distillation    -   Stanley Utility blades 11-921, 1095 Carbon steel    -   Sodium Lamp, Stonco 70 Watt high-pressure sodium security wall        light, fitted with a parabolic aluminum reflector directing        light away from the housing. The sodium bulb Type S62 lamp, 120        V, 60 Hz, 1.5 A made in Hungary by Jemanamjjasond.

Example 15a

Ten steel razor blades 311 were placed in a beaker 104 in distilleddeionized water 105 for about 48 hours. Five razor blades 311 b werekept in the dark, and five razor blades 311 a were exposed only to thesodium electronic spectrum, which is resonant with water vibrationalovertones. FIG. 81 shows the experimental apparatus used in thisexperiment. FIG. 80 shows the differences in amounts of corrosionbetween blades 311 a and 311 b.

Results: Razor blades kept in the dark had virtually no corrosion. Razorblades exposed to sodium electronic/water vibrational overtonesdisplayed corrosion on more than 90% of the surface.

Example 15b

Twelve razor blades 311 were placed in beakers 104, in sodium chloridesolution 105 (25 g/100 ml). Six razor blades (311 b) were kept in totaldarkness and six razor blades (311 a) were exposed only to the sodiumelectronic/water vibrational overtones from a sodium lamp. FIG. 81 showsthe experimental apparatus used in this experiment.

Results: Razor blades kept in the dark (not shown) had mild corrosionover 20-25% of their surfaces. Razor blades exposed to sodiumelectronic/water vibrational overtones exhibited moderate corrosion (notshown) over 70-75% of their surfaces.

In these experiments, targeted spectral energies were used to change thechemical and material properties of solutions, resulting in alteredelectrochemical reaction rates and corrosion of solids.

Example 16

For the following Examples 16a and 16b, the below listed equipment,materials, and experimental procedures were utilized (unless otherwisestated in the Example).

a) Equipment and Materials

-   -   PEM fuel cell; Dismantlable Fuel Cell Extension Kit #532008 from        the Fuel Cell Store, Boulder, Colo. A single polymer electrolyte        membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) with plastic plates over both the        anode and cathode sides. The plastic cathode plate was replaced        with a quartz plate of the same dimensions.    -   Ground and polished quartz plate from Chemglass, Inc., Part No.        CGQ-0620-12, measuring 3″×3″×¼″ thick.    -   Hydrogen gas; Praxair, UN 1049, compressed gas tank fitted with        flow regulator.    -   Oxygen gas; Praxair, UN 1072, compressed gas tank fitted with        flow regulator.    -   Microwave source; Hewlett Packard microwave spectroscopy system        including HP 8350B sweep oscillator, HP 8510 Network Analyzer,        HP 8513A reflection transmission test set.    -   Pt/H tube; custom made hollow cathode tube with platinum element        and hydrogen (H₂) fill gas, maximum current 25 mA.    -   Pt/Ne tube; Fisher Scientific hollow cathode platinum lamp,        maximum current 15 mA.    -   Cathodeon hollow cathode lamp supply C610.    -   Test Enclosure; shielded, dark, grounded enclosure, 6×3×1.5 ft.        (24 gauge metal), flat black paint inside.    -   Ammeter/load box, 592708 Fuel cell store, 3 ohms.        b) Fuel Cell Operation

In general reference to FIG. 82 b, a fuel cell 10 was placed in the TestEnclosure. Hydrogen (H₂ gas) 11 and oxygen (O₂ gas) 12 were supplied tothe fuel cell 10 through the enclosure wall with clear plastic tubingwrapped with black opaque electrical tape. Outflow gases from the fuelcell 10 were piped outside the test enclosure through plastic tubing,the ends of which were placed underwater in 100 ml beakers forcontrolling and monitoring gas flow rates via bubble rates (i.e., onebubble every 2-5 seconds). The fuel cell 10 was also connected to anammeter which was located and read outside the test enclosure.

Gas flow was begun and adjusted for approximately 30 minutes to obtainapproximately equivalent flow rates for both the hydrogen and oxygen(i.e., one bubble every 2-5 seconds) as well as consistent currentreadings. Once stable and consistent operation of the fuel cell 10 wasconfirmed, the fuel cell 10 was operated for about 3 hours, measuringcurrent about every 10 minutes. At the end of about 3 hours, the gaseswere turned off and current from the fuel cell 10 was measured aboutevery 5 minutes or every 10 minutes for about 1 hour to assess thedischarge rate of descent (i.e., the declining amount of output currentfrom the fuel cell).

After completing an experiment, the fuel cell 10 was disassembled anddried overnight in the Test Enclosure before being used again.

Example 16a

The fuel cell 10 was operated as described above to obtain three controlsets of data, with no added spectral input. Next the fuel cell 10 wasoperated as described above to obtain three more sets of data, while thecathode 13 was irradiated with the Pt/H lamp during the last 2 hours ofgas flow, with the direction of the Pt/H irradiation being opposite indirection to the flow of H⁺ ions through the polymer electrolytemembrane. Finally, this same fuel cell 10 was operated as describedabove to obtain three more sets of data, while the cathode 13 wasirradiated with a Pt/Ne lamp during the last 2 hours of gas flow, withthe direction of the Pt/Ne irradiation being opposite in direction tothe flow of H⁺ ions through the polymer electrolyte membrane.

Results: For the control tests, the average current at the beginning,after about 1 hour, and after about 3 hours of gas flow was about 219mA, 220 mA, and 218 mA, respectively. There was an observed rapiddecline in discharge current by about 30 minutes after stopping the gasflow, with an average current of about 219 mA being measured at about 25minutes after stopping the gas flow. An average current of about 80 mAwas measured after about 30 minutes from stopping the gas flow.

When the fuel cell was irradiated with the Pt/H lamp, the averagecurrent at the beginning, after about 1 hour, and after about 3 hours ofgas flow was about 212 mA, 211 mA, and 208 mA, respectively. There wasan observed rapid decline in discharge current by about 25 minutes afterstopping the gas flow, with an average current of about 217 mA beingmeasured about 20 minutes after stopping gas flow; and an averagecurrent of about 140 mA after about 25 minutes from stopping the gasflow; and an average current of about 42 mA after about 30 minutes fromstopping the gas flow.

When the fuel cell was irradiated with the Pt/Ne lamp, the averagecurrent at the beginning, after about 1 hour, and after about 3 hours ofgas flow was about 209 mA, 208 mA, and 207 mA, respectively. There wasan observed rapid decline in discharge by about 30 minutes afterstopping the gas flow, with an average current of about 172 mA about 25minutes after stopping gas flow; and an average current of about 97 mAafter about 30 minutes after stopping the gas flow.

Example 16b

The fuel cell 10 was operated as described above to obtain three controlsets of data for a second fuel cell, with no added spectral input. Nextthe fuel cell 10 was operated as described above to obtain three moresets of data, and the cathode 13 was irradiated with microwaveirradiation at 20.4 to 20.5 GHz (off frequency) during the last 2 hoursof gas flow, with the direction of the irradiation being perpendicularto the direction of flow of H⁺ ions through the polymer electrolytemembrane and parallel to the cathode 13. This same fuel cell 10 wasoperated as described above to obtain two more sets of data and thecathode 13 was irradiated with microwave irradiation at 21.35 to 21.55GHz (resonant frequency of hydroxy alpha rotation-vibration constant of21.4 GHz and subharmonic of oxygen rotational fine splitting frequencyof 21.5 GHz) during the last 2 hours of gas flow, with the direction ofthe irradiation being perpendicular to the direction of flow of H⁺ ionsthrough the polymer electrolyte membrane and parallel to the cathode 13.Finally, this same fuel cell 10 was operated as described above toobtain two more sets of data and the cathode 13 was irradiated withmicrowave irradiation at 5.9 to 6.0 GHz (resonant frequency of oxygenrotational frequency of 5.956 GHz) during the last 2 hours of gas flow,with the direction of the irradiation being parallel and opposite to thedirection of flow of H⁺ ions through the polymer electrolyte membraneand perpendicular to the cathode 13.

Results: For the control tests, the average current at the beginning,after about 1 hour, and after about 3 hours of gas flow was about 228mA, 229 mA, and 229 mA, respectively. There was an observed rapiddecline in discharge current by about 20 minutes after stopping the gasflow, with an average current of about 228 mA being measured at about 15minutes after stopping the gas flow. An average current of about 47 mAwas measured after about 20 minutes.

When the fuel cell was irradiated with the off-frequency irradiation(20.4-20.5 GHz), the average current at the beginning, after about 1hour, and after about 3 hours of gas flow was about 229 mA, 229 mA, and229 mA, respectively. There was an observed rapid decline in dischargecurrent by about 20 minutes after stopping the gas flow, with an averagecurrent of about 225 mA about 15 minutes after stopping gas flow; and anaverage current of about 43 mA after about 20 minutes after stopping thegas flow.

When the fuel cell was irradiated with the resonant irradiation(21.35-21.55 GHz) the average current at the beginning, after about 1hour, and after about 3 hours of gas flow was about 229 mA, 228 mA, and227 mA, respectively. A rapid discharge in current did not occur untilabout 30 minutes after stopping the gas flow, with an average current ofabout 223 mA being measured at about 20 minutes after stopping gas flow;and an average current of about 45 mA being measured after about 30minutes.

When the fuel cell was irradiated with the resonant irradiation (5.9-6.0GHz) the average current at the beginning, after about 1 hour, and afterabout 3 hours of gas flow was about 229 mA, 228 mA, and 229 mA,respectively. Again, a rapid discharge in current occurred later than inthe controls, with an average current of about 226 mA being measuredabout 20 minutes after stopping gas flow; and an average current ofabout 45 mA being measured after about 30 minutes after stopping the gasflow.

1. A method for conditioning at least one conditionable participant in afuel cell reaction system to form a conditioned participant in said fuelcell reaction system comprising: applying at least one conditioningenergy, excluding a spectral conditioning catalyst, to said at least oneconditionable participant, excluding a physical catalyst and a reactant,in said fuel cell reaction system, to cause at least one of theformation, stimulation and stabilization of at least one conditionedparticipant, whereby said at least one conditioning energy comprises atleast one frequency selected from the group consisting of directresonance conditioning frequencies, harmonic resonance conditioningfrequencies and non-harmonic heterodyne conditioning resonancefrequencies.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said conditionedparticipant resonantly transfers energy with at least one participant insaid fuel cell reaction system to affect at least one reaction pathwayin said fuel cell reaction system.
 3. The method of claim 2, furthercomprising applying at least one spectral energy pattern to said fuelcell reaction system.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein a rate of atleast one reaction in said fuel cell reaction system is accelerated. 5.The method of claim 1, wherein said fuel cell reaction system comprises:at least one member selected from the group consisting of an alkalinefuel cell, a direct methanol fuel cell, a membrane/electrode assembly, amolten carbonate fuel cell, a phosphoric acid fuel cell, a polymerelectrolyte membrane fuel cell, a protonic-ceramic fuel cell, aregenerative fuel cell and a solid oxide fuel cell.
 6. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said fuel cell reaction system comprises: a polymerelectrolyte membrane fuel cell.
 7. A method for conditioning at leastone conditionable participant in a fuel cell reaction system comprising:applying at least one conditioning energy, excluding a spectralconditioning catalyst, to said at least one conditionable participant,excluding a physical catalyst and a reactant, in said fuel cell reactionsystem, to cause at least one of the formation, stimulation andstabilization of at least one conditioned participant, whereby said atleast one conditioning energy comprises at least one frequency selectedfrom the group consisting of direct resonance conditioning frequencies,harmonic resonance conditioning frequencies, non-harmonic heterodyneconditioning resonance frequencies, electronic conditioning frequencies,vibrational conditioning frequencies, rotational conditioningfrequencies, rotational-vibrational conditioning frequencies, finesplitting conditioning frequencies, hyperfine splitting conditioningfrequencies, electric field splitting conditioning frequencies, magneticfield splitting conditioning frequencies, cyclotron resonanceconditioning frequencies, orbital conditioning frequencies and nuclearconditioning frequencies.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said fuelcell reaction system comprises at least one member selected from thegroup consisting of an alkaline fuel cell, a direct methanol fuel cell,a membrane/electrode assembly, a molten carbonate fuel cell, aphosphoric acid fuel cell, a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, aprotonic-ceramic fuel cell, a regenerative fuel cell and a solid oxidefuel cell.